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Edited by L. H. Bailey 



A TEXT -BOOK OF GRASSES 



Edited by L. H. Bailey 



Mann, Beginnings in Agriculture 
Warren, Elements of Agriculture 
Warren, Farm Management 
Lyon & Fippin, Soil Management 
J. F. DuGGER, Southern Field Crops 
B. M. DuGGAR, Plant Physiology 
Harper, Animal Husbandry for Schools 
Montgomery, Corn Crops 
Wheeler, Manures and Fertilizers 
Livingston, Field Crop Production 
WiDTSOE, Irrigation Practice 
Hitchcock, A Text-Book of Grasses 
Gay, Judging Live-Stock 



A TEXT- BOOK OF 

GRASSES 



WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO 

THE ECONOMIC SPECIES OF THE 

UNITED STATES 



A. S. HITCHCOCK 

h 

8T8TEMATIC AGROSTOLOGIST, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

WASHINGTON, D. C. ; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE 

KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 



^ctd fork 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1914 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1914 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1914. 



JSount ^Itastant ^ttsii 

J. Horace McFarland Company 
Hanisburg, Pa. 

©CI.A379625 



4<<j 



PREFACE 

The present work is primarily a text-book, but some 
technical information is included that might more properly 
be consigned to a reference book. To a considerable 
extent this reference matter is appended to text para- 
graphs in the form of notes in smaller type. Although 
the chief emphasis is placed on Systematic Agrostology, 
comprising Part II, a brief outline of Economic Agros- 
tology is presented in Part I. In this part the clovers 
and other forage plants not belonging to the grass family 
are referred to in classifying the forage plants and their 
uses. The reader will observe that by the plan adopted 
the information on a given grass is not found segregated 
in a single paragraph or chapter but is scattered to meet 
the necessities of the classification used. The index 
makes these scattered paragraphs readily accessible. 

The botanical information concerning each species 
will be found in the appropriate paragraph in Part II, 
but the economic information will be found classified in 
Part I, a part under the chapter on meadow plants, for 
example, and a part under the chapter on pasture plants. 
It seems to the author that this method has didactic 
advantages. In a reference book it might be more con- 
venient to have all the information on one species placed 
in sequence. Part I is too elementary to meet the demands 
of a course in agronomy, but it is hoped that it may be 
found useful as a bridge to connect the subjects of Sys- 
tematic Agrostology and Agronomic Agrostology. 

(V) 



VI PREFACE 

The key to genera includes all the genera found grow- 
ing wild or in common cultivation in the United States. 
More complete descriptions of the more important genera 
are added under each tribe. For use as a reference work 
it would have been desirable to give full descriptions of 
each genus. But again the author's course was modified 
by didactic requirements. It is unnecessary for the 
student to acquire information on the unimportant genera. 

The nomenclature followed is that of the American 
Code. Synonyms are introduced whenever a species or 
genus has been commonly known under another name. 

After careful consideration, the English system is 
used for all measurements except the small fractions of 
an inch. But for the smaller measurements the milli- 
meter is adopted as the unit. The English system is as 
yet more familiar than the metric for the larger measure- 
ments. The small fractions of an inch however are incon- 
venient. The line might be used but is unfamiliar and is 
too large a unit. The millimeter meets the requirements 
as to convenience and size of unit, and is sufficiently 
familiar to botanical students. 

The habit dra^dngs have been made by Mrs. Mary 
Wright Gill, the detailed drawings of the spikelet by Mrs. 

Agnes Chase. 

A. S. HITCHCOCK. 
Washington, D. C. 
May 12, 1914. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PART I 

ECONOMIC AGROSTOLOGY 



CHAPTER I 

Pages 
Introduction 1-5 

Agrostology, 2 — Economic agrostology, 2 — Systematic 
agrostology, 3 — The uses of grasses, 3 — The value of 
farm crops, 4. 

CHAPTER II 

Economic Classification of Grasses 6-13 

Grains, 6 — Uses of the grains for food, 6 — Relative im- 
portance of the different grains, 7 — Value and production 
of the cereals, 8 — Starch, 11 — Alcohol, 12 — Miscellaneous 
uses, 12". 

CHAPTER III 

Forage Plants 14r-28 

The importance of forage plants, 14 — Natural classi- 
fication, 19 — Legumes, 19 — Miscellaneous, 21 — Classi- 
fication of forage plants according to use, 22 — Pasture 
plants, 22 — Native pastures, 22 — Ranges, 22 — Over- 
grazing, 24 — Rejuvenating wornout ranges, 25 — Range 
grasses, 26. 

(vii) 



viii TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IV 

Pages 

Cultivated Pastures 29-37 

Permanent pastures 29-36 

Pasture grasses, 30 — Blue-grass, 30 — Establishing a 
blue-grass pasture, 27 — Bermuda-grass, 31 — Estab- 
lishing a Bermuda pasture, 32 — Other pasture- 
grasses, 33 — Brome-grass, 33 — Redtop, 33 — Orchard- 
grass, 33 — Meadow fescue, 33 — Rye grasses, 33 — 
Southern pasture-grasses, 35 — Two common tropical 
grasses, 35. 

Temporary pasture 36-37 

Annual plants for pasture, 36. 

CHAPTER V 

Meadow Plants 38-53 

Native meadows, 38 — The commercial production of 
wild hay, 39 — Salt-marsh grass, 40 — Tame meadows, 
40 — Permanent meadows, 40 — Alfalfa (Medicago sativa 
L.), 41— Clovers, 41— Timothy, 42— Redtop, 43— 
Johnson-grass, 43 — Eradication of Johnson-grass, 44 — 
Other meadow-grasses, 45 — Slender wheat-grass, 45 — 
Temporary meadows, 46 — Grain hay, 46 — The relative 
importance of grain hay, 46 — Millets, 47 — Sorghum, 
48 — Corn, 48 — Other grasses producing hay or coarse 
fodder, 49 — Japanese barnyard millet, 49 — Proso millet, 
50 — Pearl millet, 50 — Legumes, 50 — Cowpea (Vigna 
sinensis (Torner) Savi), 51 — Velvet bean (Stizolobium 
Deeringianum Bort), 52 — Vetches, 52 — Other legumes, 
52. 

CHAPTER VI 

Hay and Green Feed 54-60 

Hay, 54 — In arid regions, 55 — Stacks, 55 — Hay in the 
West, 56 — The standard hay, 56 — Baled hay, 56 — Soiling 
and silage crops, 57 — Soiling, 57 — Silage, 58, 



TABLE OF CONTENTS IX 

CHAPTER VII 

Pages 

Lawns 61-67 

Essentials for a lawn, 61 — Blue-grass, 61 — Rhode Island 
bent, 62 — Bermuda-grass, 62 — Less important lawn- 
grasses, 63 — Lawn mixtures, 64 — Preparation of the 
soil, 65 — Seeding, 65 — Subsequent care, 66 — Watering, 
66— Turfing, 67. 

CHAPTER VIII 

Grasses Used for Miscellaneous Purposes .... 68-74 
Ornamental grasses, 68 — The bamboos, 69 — Soil- 
binding, 69 — Sand-dunes, 69 — Reclaiming sand-dunes, 
70 — Sand-binders, 71 — Fixing sand with beach-grass, 
71 — Sugar-producing grasses, 72 — Sugar-cane, 72 — 
Sorgho or sorghum, 73 — Textile grasses, 73 — Other uses, 
74 — Green-manuring, 74. 



CHAPTER IX 

Weeds 75-78 

Classes of weeds, 75 — Perennial weeds, 76 — Weedy- 
grasses, 76 — Annual weeds, 76 — On the Pacific coast, 
77 — Perennial weedy grasses, 77 — The seriously trouble- 
some weeds, 78. 

CHAPTER X 

Grass Crop Areas 79-91 

Moisture, 79 — Temperature, 79 — The timothy area, 80 — ■ 
The Bermuda-grass area, 81 — The Great Plains, 81 — 
Forage crops for the Great Plains, 82 — The arid section, 
83 — The Pacific slope, 84 — The relative importance of 
the different kinds of forage in the different regions of 
the United States, 84— Remarks on Table XVII, 85. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS * 

PART II 
SYSTEMATIC AGROSTOLOGY 



CHAPTER XI 

Pages 

Morphology op the Vegetative Organs 95-111 

Distinguishing characters of grasses, 95 — Gross anatomy, 
96 — Perennial herbaceous species, 96 — Distribution, 97 — 
The root, 98— The stem, 98— Duration, 99— Stems modi- 
fied for propagation, 100 — Stolons, 101 — Corms, 102 — 
Artificial propagation by means of stems, 102 — The leaf, 
103 — Leaf-base and blades, 104 — The prophyllum, 104 — 
The sheath, 104— Sheath-nodes, 105— The collar, 105— 
The Hgule, 105— The blade, 106— Nervation, 107— 
Auricles, 108 — Roll leaves, 108 — Scales, 109 — Bracts, 
110. 

CHAPTER XII 

Morphology of the Floral Organs 112-132 

The inflorescence, 112 — Kinds of inflorescence, 113 — 
Unisexual inflorescence, 114 — Monoecious genera, 115 — 
The axis of inflorescence, 115 — Branching of panicles, 
116 — Motor organs, 117 — The spikelet, 117 — Sterile 
spikelets, 120— The pedicel, 120— The glumes, 121— 
Anomalous glumes, 123 — The lemma, 124 — Sterile flo- 
rets and sterile lemmas, 125 — Awns, 126 — Twisted awns, 
127— The palea, 127— The lodicules, 128— The stamens, 
128— The pistil, 129— The fruit, 129— The seed, 130— 
The embryo, 131 — The endosperm, 131 — The rachilla, 
131. 

CHAPTER XIII 

Ecology 133-150 

Seed dispersal, 133— Dispersal by wind, 133 — Dispersal 
by animals, 135 — Germination, 136 — Germination of 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xi 

Page 

maize, 136 — Impervious seed-coverings, 137 — Self-burial, 
137 — Water-grasses, 138 — Propagation by bulblets, 139 
— Plant societies, 139 — Mesophytes, 140 — Xerophytes, 
141— Prairie, 142— Sandy soil, 143— Sand-dunes, 143— 
Pine-barrens, 144 — Rocks, 144 — Deserts, 144 — Halo- 
phytes, 146 — Hydrophytes, 146 — Geographical dis- 
tribution, 147 — Distribution of grasses, 148 — Distri- 
bution of species, 148 — Circumpolar distribution, 149 — 
Generic distribution, 149. 



CHAPTER XIV 

Taxonomy or Classification 151-158 

Species, 151 — Genera, 152 — The grass family and its 
subdivisions, 154 — The two series of tribes, 154 — ^The 
tribes of grasses, 155 — The more important genera of 
grasses, 156 — Characters used in classification, 157 — 
Phylogeny, 157. 



CHAPTER XV 

Tribe 1. Maydex . 159-163 

Tripsacum L., 159 — Euchlama Schrad., 160 — Zea L., 
IQl—Coix L., 162. 



CHAPTER XVI 

Tribe II. Andropogoneae 164-173 

Miscanthus Anderss., 166 — Saccharum L., 166 — Eri- 
anthus Michx., 167 — Subtribe Euandropogonex, 167 — 
Andropogon L., 169 — Cymbopogon Spreng., 169 — Holcus 
L., 170 — Classification of the sorghums, 172 — Tribe III. 
Naziese (Zoysieae), 173 — Tribe IV. Melinideae {Triste- 
ginex), 175. • 



xii TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XVII 

Tribe V. Paniceae 176-188 

Paspalum L., 179 — Axonopus Beauv., 180 — Syntherisma 
Walt., 180 — Panicum L., 181 — Echinochloa Beauv., 183 — 
Tricholaena Schrad., 184 — Chxtochloa Scribn., 184 — 
Pennisetum Pers., 186 — Cenchrus L., 187 — Stenotaphrum 
Trin., 187. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Tribe VI. Oryze^ 18^191 

Oryza L., 190 — Zizania L., 191. 



CHAPTER XIX 

Tribe VII. Phalarideae 192-195 

Savastana Schrank, 192 — Anthoxanthum L., 193 — 
Phalaris L., 194. 



CHAPTER XX 

Tribe VIII. Agrostidese 196-207 

Aristida L., 199 — Stipa L., 199 — Muhlenbergia Schreb., 
200 — Phleum L., 202 — Alopecurus L., 202 — Agrostis L., 
203 — Calnmagrostis Adans., 205 — Ammophila Host, 
206— Lrtg^nn/s L., 207. 



CHAPTER XXI 

Tribe IX. Aveneae 208-212 

Notholcus Nash, 209 — Avena L., 209 — Origin of the cul- 
tivated oats, 211 — Arrhenatherum Beauv., 212. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii 

CHAPTER XXII 

Pages 

Tribe X. Chlondex 213-218 

Capriola Adans., 214 — Chloris Swartz, 216 — Bouteloua 
Lag., 21Q—Bulhilis Raf., 218. 

CHAPTER XXIII 

Tribe XI. Festucex 219-234 

Cortaderia Stapf, 224 — Arundo L., 224 — Eragrostis 
Host, 225— Distichlis Raf., 225— Dactylis L., 226— Poa 
L., 227 — Kentucky blue-grass (P. pratensis L.), 228 — 
Other economic species of Poa, 229 — Festuca L., 230 — 
Meadow fescue, 230 — Sheep's fescue (F. ovina L.), 231 — 
Red fescue {F. rubra L.), 231 — Bromus L., 232 — Awnless 
brome-grass, 232 — Rescue-grass (B. unioloides Kunth), 
233. 

CHAPTER XXIV 

Tribe XII. Hordes 235-246 

Lolium L., 236 — Agropyron Gaertn., 237 — Triticum L., 
238— Spelt and emmer, 239— Origin of wheat, 240— 
Classification of the wheats, 242 — Secale L., 244 — 
Hordeum L., 2U—Elymus L., 246— Tribe XIII. Bambw- 
seae, 247. 

CHAPTER XXV 

Nomenclature 250-266 

Generic names, 250 — Specific names, 251 — Nouns in 
the genitive, 252 — Nouns in apposition, 252 — Names 
of a lower category, 253 — Transferring specific names, 
253 — Authors of names, 254 — Use of parentheses, 254 — 
Capitalization, 255 — BibUography, 256 — Vahd names 
and synonyms, 257 — Codes of botanical nomenclature, 
258 — Vienna code, 258 — American code, 259 — Compari- 
son of the two recent codes, 260 — Common names, 260 — 
List of books and articles relating to taxonomic agros- 
tology, 262. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

1. Production of hay and forage in the United States. One large 

dot represents 500,000 tons; one small dot represents 100,000 
tons 14 

2. Production of timothy in the United States. One dot represents 

100,000 tons 15 

3. Production of timothy and clover mixed in the United States. 

One dot represents 100,000 tons 15 

4. Production of clover alone in the United States. One dot rep- 

resents 10,000 tons 16 

5. Production of alfalfa in the United States. One dot represents 

20,000 tons 16 

6. Production of millet and Hungarian-grass in the United States. 

One dot represents 5,000 tons 18 

7. Production of other tame and cultivated grasses in the United 

States. One dot represents 10,000 tons 18 

8. Production of wild, salt and prairie grasses in the United 

States. One dot represents 10,000 tons 19 

9. Production of grains cut green in the United States. One dot 

represents 10,000 tons 20 

10. Production of coarse forage in the United States. One dot rep- 

resents 20,000 tons 20 

11. Euchlaena mexicana. Portion of plant reduced; a pistillate in- 

florescence, and four fertile spikelets. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. 
Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 160 

12. Coix lacryma-Jobi. Inflorescence showing several pistillate 

beads, the staminate spikes protruding: X% 162 

13. Miscanthus sinensis. Plant much reduced; spikelet, X 3. (U. S. 

Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 166 

14. Saccharum officinarum. Plant much reduced; three joints of 

the rachis (a), a spikelet (6), and a flower (c), X3. (U. S. 
Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 167 

15. Erianthus divaricatus. Plant reduced; spikelet, flower, the 

two glumes, and the fertile lemma with lower portion of awn. 
(U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 17) 168 

16. Andropogon furcatus. Inflorescence, XH- A joint of the rachis 

with a fertile spikelet below and a staminate spikelet above, X 5. 1 69 

(XV) 



xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

17. Holcus halepensis. Inflorescence and rhizomes, X 3^; a terminal 

fertile spikelet with two staminate spikelets, X 3 171 

18. Hilaria cenchroides. Plant reduced; group of spikelets, a 

staminate spikelet, a pistillate spikelet, X 5. (U. S. Dept. 
Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 174 

19. Paspalum dilatatum. Inflorescence, XH; spikelet X5 179 

20. Syntherisma sanguinalis. Plant, X 3^; two views of spikelet, X5. 180 

21. Panicum miliaceum. Infloresce^ce, X %; spikelet and fruit 

(fertile lemma and palea), X 7 182 

22. Echinochloa frumentacea. Inflorescence, xK; spikelet, X 5 .. . 183 

23. Chsetochloa lutescens. Inflorescence, X M ; spikelet with sub- 

tending bristles, X 5 184 

24. Chsetochloa italica, Hungarian-grass. Inflorescence, X M 185 

25. Chgetochloa italica, common millet. Inflorescence, X H; fruit X 5. 185 

26. Pennisetum glaucum. Inflorescence, X M ; spikelet with in- 

volucre of bristles, X 5 186 

27. Cenchrus carolinianus. Upper portion of plant with inflor- 

escence, X ?ji; spikelet, X 7 187 

28. Stenotaphrum secundatum. Upper portion of culms with 

inflorescence, X K; spikelet, X 5 188 

29. Pharus glaber. Plant reduced; branchlet of inflorescence with 

a sessile pistillate and pedicelled staminate spikelet, and a 
fertile floret. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost.,Bull No. 20) .. . 189 

30. Oryza sativa. Inflorescence, X K; spikelet, X 3 191 

31. Zizania palustris. Inflorescence, much reduced. (U. S. Dept. 

Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 14) 191 

32. Anthoxanthum odoratum. Inflorescence, X 1 ; spikelet, the two 

sterile lemmas and the fertile floret, X 5 192 

33. Phalaris arundinacea. Inflorescence, X K; spikelet and fertile 

floret, X 5 193 

34. Phalaris canariensis. Inflorescence, XH; glumes and fertile 

floret with the pair of sterile lemmas, X 5 194 

35. Aristida longiseta. Spikelet, the fertile lemma raised from the 

glumes, X 1 199 

36. Stipa spartea. Mature fertile lemma (fruit) with twisted awn, Xl. 200 

37. Muhlenbergia gracilis. Plant, X3^; spikelet, the floret raised 

from the glumes; glumes and floret. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. 
Bot. Bull. No. 26) 201 

38. Phleum pratense. Inflorescence, X }4; glumes and mature 

floret, X 5 202 

39. Alopecurus pratensis. Plant reduced; spikelet and floret. 

(U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 203 

40. Agrostis alba. Inflorescence and rhizomes, X M ; spikelet, X 5. . 204 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 

Fig. Page 

41. Calamagrostis scabra. Plant reduced; spikelet, the floret 

raised from the glumes. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 
No. 20) 205 

42. Ammophila areiiaria. Inflorescence and lower portion of plant, 

XK. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull No. 14) 206 

43. Notholcus lanatus. Inflorescence, X%; spikelet, the two 

florets raised from the glumes, X 7 210 

44. Avena fatua. Spikelet and a lower floret, Xl 211 

45. Arrhenatherum elatius. Inflorescence, xH; spikelet, X 4 212 

46. Capriola Dactylon. Plant showing stolons, X %; spikelet, X 7 . 215 

47. Bouteloua gracilis. Inflorescence, X 1; spikelet, X 10 216 

48. Bulbilis dactyloides. Staminate plant, X K ; spikelet, X 4 217 

49. Bulbilis dactyloides. Pistillate plant, X H; cluster of spikelets 

and floret, X 4 218 

60. Cortaderia argentea. A group of inflorescences greatly reduced ; 

glimies of pistillate spikelet (a), florets of pistillate spikelet, 
(6) glumes (c), and florets {d) of staminate spikelet. (U. S. 
Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 224 

61. Eragrostis cilianensis. Plant, reduced; two spikelets, showing 

variable number of florets; portion of rachilla from which 
some of the florets have fallen. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. 
Agrost. BuU. No. 17) 225 

62. Distichlis spicata. Staminate plant (at left) and pistillate 

plant (at right) reduced; pistillate and staminate spikelets. . . 226 

53. Dactylis glomerata. Inflorescence, X % ; spikelet, X 7 227 

54. Poa pratensis. Plant, X ]4. ', spikelet and floret, X 5 229 

55. Festuca elatior. Inflorescence, X H; spikelet, X 4 231 

56. Bromus inermis. Inflorescence, X H; spikelet, X 3 233 

57. Lolium multiflorum. Inflorescence, X }/2 '■> spikelet, with portion 

of rachis, X 3 237 

68. Agropyron repens. Inflorescence and rhizomes, X H; spikelet, 

X 3 238 

69. Triticum dicoccum. Inflorescence (head), X H; spikelet with 

a disarticulated joint of the rachis, X 2 239 

60. Triticum sestivum. Inflorescence (head), X Hj spikelet with 

portion of attached rachis, X 2 241 

61. Secale cereale. Inflorescence (head), XK; spikelet, X 2 244 

62. Hordeum vulgare. Inflorescence (head), Xj^; cluster of 3 

spikelets, and a single floret from the back showing the 
stipiform rachilla, X 2 245 

63. Arundinaria macrosperma. Portion of culm with inflorescence 

reduced; floret, palea showing lodicules, and a caryopsis, 
reduced. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. BuU. No. 20) 248 



PAET I 

ECONOMIC AGROSTOLOGY 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 



Economic botany is that branch of the science of 
botany which treats of the uses of plants. All animals, man 
included, are dependent directly or indirectly upon plants 
for their existence. With the exception of water and a 
small amount of mineral matter such as salt, the food- 
supply of all animal life finally may be traced back to 
the constructive metabolism of plants, a process depend- 
ent upon photosynthesis. Many animals derive a whole 
or a part of their food from other animals, but sooner or 
later in the chain of relations between animals and their 
food-supply a point is reached where the ultimate deriva- 
tion is from plants. The vegetable kingdom provides 
directly a large part of the food for man and for his 
domestic animals. It provides the fibers from which much 
of his clothing is made; much of the material for construct- 
ing his home and the articles with which it is furnished; 
many of the drugs, medicines, dyes, condiments, bever- 
ages, and a great variety of other useful articles or 
substances. 

Of the natural families of plants that contribute their 
quota to supply the wants of man, the grass family exceeds 
all others in the amount and value of its products. To 

A (1) 



2 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

this family belong the grains, such as wheat, com, and 
rice, that furnish the bulk of the vegetable food of the 
world for man, and feed for stock; the greater part of the 
pasture and meadow plants that furnish forage and hay; 
and many large grasses such as the sugar-cane, the sor- 
ghum, and the bamboos that are not usually classed with 
this family by those who are not botanists. 

1. Agrostology. — Agrostology is that branch of botany 
which treats of grasses. The term is derived from two 
Greek words, agrostis (ayposns from aypos, a field) a 
kind of grass, and logos (A.oyos) speech. The subject is 
usually divided into two branches, economic agrostology 
and systematic agrostology. Like any other branch of 
botany, agrostology can be considered also from the 
standpoint of anatomy, morphology, or physiology. Up 
to the present time the study of grasses from these stand- 
points has not received distinctive recognition but has 
been merged with the anatomy, morphology, and physiol- 
ogy of plants in general, or has been included in syste- 
matic agrostology. 

2. Economic agrostology. — This is that branch of 
economic botany which treats of grasses, or it is that 
branch of agrostology which treats of the uses of grasses. 
The uses of the grasses and their products are so many and 
various and touch so many industries that it is necessary 
to define the limits of the subject as it will be considered 
in this work. It is intended so far as practicable to 
restrict the discussion of economic agrostology to its 
botanical phases. The methods of growing grasses, that 
is, cultural methods, belong more properly, in case of the 
field crops, to agronomy; or, in case of the ornamental 
species to horticulture. The methods of obtaining the 
products of grasses and the course of the products after 



INTRODUCTION 3 

they leave the plant, such as the extraction of sugar from 
sugar-cane, or the threshing of grain and its subsequent 
conversion into flour and bread or into starch or alcohol, 
may belong to chemical technology. In the present work 
it is proposed to emphasize the botany connected with 
the economic phases of agrostology, but information will 
not be excluded from brief mention when necessary for a 
proper understanding of the subject, even though this 
information would fall naturally under some allied branch 
such as agronomy. 

3. Systematic agrostology. — Systematic agrostology 
treats of grasses from the botanical as distinguished from 
the practical or economic side. Strictly speaking system- 
atic agrostology should be synonymous with taxonomic 
agrostology; that is, it should concern itself with the 
botanical classification or natural relationship of grasses. 
In the present work it includes also such morphology as 
is necessary for a proper understanding of classification 
and also brief references to ecology and some general 
information less easily classified. 

4. The uses of grasses. — In a future chapter grasses 
are technically defined and distinguished from other 
plants. The term grass is generally understood to include 
herbaceous plants with narrow leaves, such as timothy, 
blue-grass, and redtop. The farmer often understands by 
grass any small herbaceous plant, especially such as is 
used for forage. In this sense he includes among the 
grasses such leguminous plants as alfalfa and clover. 
There are a number of plants with narrow, grass-like 
leaves that also may be confused with the grasses. Among 
such plants are the sedges, rushes, and certain lilies or 
lily allies. On the other hand the layman may not recog- 
nize as grasses the larger members of the family, such as 



4 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

corn, sugar-cane, the giant reed, and the bamboos. In 
the popular mind even the grains may be excluded from 
the idea of grasses. Without introducing at this point 
the exact botanical definition of a grass, it may be said 
that grasses include such representative plants as timo- 
thy, wheat, corn, sugar-cane and bamboos, but exclude 
the clovers, the sedges, and the rushes. 

5. The value of farm crops. — The total value of all 
crops produced in the United States in 1909 was $5,487,- 
161,000.* In this respect, Illinois leads among the states. 
The following table gives the relative rank of the first 
ten states: 

TABLE I 
Total Value (Dollars) of All Farm Crops in 1909 for the Ten 

Leading States 
1. Illinois $372,270,470 6. Missouri 



2. Iowa 314,666,298 7. Kansas . 

3. Texas 298,133,466 8. New York 

4. Ohio 230,337,981 9. Indiana . 

5. Georgia 226,595,436 10. Nebraska 



.$220,663,724 
. 214,859,597 
. 209,168,236 
. 204,209,812 
. 196,125,632 



The total value of the leading crops indicates the 
relative importance of those derived from the grass 
family as compared with those from other families : 

TABLE II 
Total Value (Dollars) of the Leading Crops in 1909 

Cereals $2,665,539,714 

Hay and forage 824,004,877 

Tobacco 104,302,856 

Cotton and cotton-seed 824,696,287 

Sugar crops 61,648,942 

Vegetables 418,110,154 

Fruits and nuts 222,024,216 

Forest products of farms 195,306,283 

The total valuation in Table I does not include forest 
products except such as are produced on farms. The 

*The statistics of this and other tables are taken from the Thirteenth Census 
of the United States, Vol. V. 



INTRODUCTION 5 

value of cereals includes that of buckwheat ($9,330,592), 
which is not a grass. To the value of hay and forage 
might be added that of grass seed ($15,137,683) classed 
under ''other grains and seeds." Under "vegetables" is 
included potatoes as the most important single crop. 

It will be observed from Table II that the value of 
cereals is about 48 per cent, of hay and forage 15 per cent, 
and of cotton 15 per cent, of the total value of all farm 
crops. By including grass seed, broom-corn, sorghum, 
and sugar-cane, and excluding buckwheat, it is found that 
about 643^ per cent of the value of farm crops is derived 
from members of the grass family. The value of hay and 
forage does not include that of pasture and range, which 
if taken into consideration would swell enormously the 
total value of the products of the grass family. 



CHAPTER II 

ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSES 

According to their uses, grasses may be classified into 
three main divisions, — grains, forage plants and lawn 
grasses; and four minor divisions, — ornamentals, soil- 
binders, sugar-producing grasses, and textile grasses, 
leaving a few unclassified. Another category of grasses, 
the weeds, being the antithesis of useful plants, might be 
included under economic grasses. A special chapter is 
devoted to them (Chapter IX). 

GRAINS 

6. The terai grain is applied to those grasses whose 
fruit is used for food or for stock-feed. The fruit or seed 
is technically a caryopsis (Par. 162), or in popular lan- 
guage, a grain. The common grains are corn, sorghum, 
wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, millet. 

7. Uses of the grains for food. — The seeds are rich in 
starch and usually contain also a considerable quantity 
of protein. For this reason they are eminently fitted for 
use as food. In the United States, the grain of sorghum 
and millet is not used for human food, although both are 
extensively used for this purpose in some parts of the Old 
World, especially among primitive peoples. Oats, rye 
and barley, though used to a limited extent, are of secon- 
dary importance as food plants in America. The other 
three grains, wheat, corn, and rice, are of fundamental 

(6) 



ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSES 7 

importance as food plants for the white race both in 
America and the Old World. Wheat, oats, barley, and 
rye are usually designated by the American farmer as 
small grains, to distinguish them from corn. Rice is 
usually not included in this loose classification because 
its culture is confined to the moist regions of the coast, 
and it is piot found in the grain-growing districts of the 
country. Emmer, spelt, and other species of wheat 
allied to our common bread wheat, are grown in the Old 
World, and the first mentioned is grown to a limited 
extent as a forage crop in America. (See Farmers' Bul- 
letins Nos. 139, 466.) A classification of the grains with 
their botanical names is given in a future chapter. 

All the grains cultivated in the United States are 
annuals. Certain plants that belong to other families are 
cultivated in various parts of the world for the seed which 
is ground into flour and used for food, and hence might be 
classed as grains. The only one of these used in this 
country is the buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum L.). 
Certain others are cultivated among primitive peoples in 
other parts of the world, as for example, the quinoa 
{Chenopodium Quinoa Willd.) in the Andes. The seeds of 
certain wild grasses, especially the Indian rice {Zizania 
palustris), have been used by the North American 
Indians for food. 

8. Relative importance of the different grains. — The 
grains are used primarily for human food. Scarcely less 
important is their use as feed for domestic animals. 
Wheat and rice are used almost exclusively as human food, 
but all the others are used in part or, in the United States, 
almost wholly for stock feed. In Europe, to a much greater 
extent than in America, barley and rye serve as bread- 
stuffs, while millet (Chcetochloa italica) and proso millet 



8 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

(Panicum miliaceum) are used for porridge or mush. In 
America the latter grains are fed to stock only. Certain 
varieties of sorghum furnish an important part of the 
human food-supply in Africa and China, while in this 
country other varieties, such as kafir, are used as stock 
feed. The most important grain is wheat, which is nearly 
all made into flour, forming the principal breadstuff. 
Corn is next in importance, furnishing a large part of the 
feed of domestic animals and serving also to a considerable 
extent for human food. Oats are produced chiefly for 
feeding horses, though some goes into oatmeal for human 
food. 

In this country barley is raised chiefly in the cooler 
regions, and is of importance as a food for stock in those 
regions where, because of the short growing season or 
for other reasons, corn cannot be successfully grown, as in 
much of the West and Northwest. Large quantities are 
also used in the brewing industry. Rye as a grain is of 
comparatively little importance in the United States. 
Rice is of secondary importance in America because, 
requiring for its cultivation a warm climate and land that 
can be flooded, the area adapted to its growth is limited 
in extent, being confined to the low coastal region from 
North Carolina to eastern Texas. A variety known as 
upland rice is being grown in Louisiana and eastern 
Texas on drier land and is cultivated and harvested in 
the same manner as wheat. In the warmer parts of the 
Old World, especially in southeastern Asia, rice is the 
most important food plant grown. 

9. Value and production of the cereals. — The value 
of the different cereals produced in the United States in 
1909, excluding buckwheat, is shown in the following 
table : 



ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSES 9 

TABLE III 
The Value (Dollabs) op Cereals in 1909 

Com $1,438,553,919 Rye $20,421,812 

Wheat 657,656,801 Rice 16,019,607 

Oats 414,697,422 Kafir and Milo . . 10,816,940 

Barley 92,458,571 Emmer and Spelt . . .5,584,050 

The production of cereals in the United States as 
compared with the total world production is shown in 
Table IV (see Farmers' Bulletin No. 581): 

TABLE IV 

Production (Bushels) of the Cereals for the United States and 
FOR THE World in 1913 
United States World 
Corn 2,446,998,000 Corn 3,607,359,000 



Wheat 
Oats . 
Barley 
Rye . 



. 763,380,000 Wheat 4,126,000,000 

.1,121,768,000 Oats 4,672,168,000 

. 178,189,000 Barley 1,613,748,000 

. 41,381,000 Rye 1,884,646,000 



It is seen from this table that the United States pro- 
duced about two-thirds of the corn, one-fifth of the wheat, 
and one-fourth of the oats of the world, but only a small 
part of the barley and rye. 

Other countries leading in the production of corn are 
Argentina, Hungary and Mexico; of wheat, Russia, Brit- 
ish India, France and Canada; of oats, Russia, Germany, 
Canada and France; of barley, Russia, Germany and 
Japan; of rye, Russia, Germany and Austria. 

The value of the cereals produced by the ten leading 
states is shown in Table V: 

TABLE V 

The Value (Dollars) of the Cereals Produced in 1909 by the Ten 
Leading States 

1. Illinois $297,523,098 6, North Dakota .$149,133,451 

2. Iowa 230,205,315 7. Missouri .... 147,980,414 

3. Kansas 169,109,449 8. Minnesota . . . 140,864,148 

4. Nebraska .... 153,666,652 9. Ohio 137,907,934 

5. Indiana 151.898,146 10. South Dakota . . 98,953,050 



10 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



TABLE VI 

Production (Bushels) of Corn for the Five Leading States 

IN 1909 

1. Illinois 390,218,676 4. Missouri .... 191,427,087 

2. Iowa 341,750,460 5. Nebraska .... 180,132,807 

3. Indiana 195,496,433 

TABLE VII 

Production (Bushels) of Wheat for the Five Leading States 

IN 1909 

1. North Dakota . .116,781,886 4. Nebraska .... 47,685,745 

2. Kansas 77,577,115 5. South Dakota . . 47,059,590 

3. Minnesota .... 57,094,412 

TABLE VIII 

Production (Bushels) of Oats for the Five Leading States in 1909 

1. Illinois .... 150,386,074 4. Wisconsin .... 71,349,038 

2. Iowa 128,198,055 5. North Dakota . . 65,886,702 

3. Minnesota . . . 93,897,717 

TABLE IX 

Production (Bushels) of Barley for the Five Leading States 

IN 1909 

1. Minnesota .... 34,927,773 4. South Dakota . . 22,396,130 

2. California .... 26,441,954 5. Wisconsin .... 22,156,041 

3. North Dakota . . 26,365,758 

TABLE X 
Production (Bushels) of Rye for the Five Leading States in 1909 

1. Michigan 5,814,394 4. Pennsylvania . . . 3,496,603 

2. Wisconsin 4,797,775 5. New York .... 2,010,601 

3. Minnesota .... 4,426,028 

TABLE XI 

Production (Bushels) of Emmer and Spelt for the Five Leading 
States in 1909 

1. South Dakota . . . 6,098,982 4. Kansas 785,362 

2. North Dakota . . . 2,564,732 5. Minnesota 757,339 

3. Nebraska 1,221,975 

The production of grain from kafir and milo is indicated 
in Table XII. The statistics for these crops when grown 
for forage are included under ''coarse forage:" 



ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSES 11 

TABLE XII 

Production (Bushels) of Grain of Kafir and Milo for the Five 
Leading States in 1909 

1. Texas 5,860,444 4. California 938,049 

2. Kansas 5,115,415 5. New Mexico .... 543,350 

3. Oklahoma .... 4,658,752 

The production of rice has shifted in recent years 
from the South Atlantic coast to Louisiana and Texas, 
where upland rice is now grown. Over nine-tenths of 
the acreage of this crop is now in the two last- 
mentioned states: 

TABLE XIII 
Production (Bushels) of Rough Rice for the Five Leading States 

IN 1909 

1. Louisiana 10,839,973 4. South Carolina . . . 541,570 

2. Texas 8,991,745 5. Georgia 148,698 

3. Arkansas 1,282,830 



STARCH 

10. All the grains mentioned may be used for the pro- 
duction of starch and alcohol. — From the commercial 
standpoint, the chief starch-producing plants of the 
world are corn, wheat, rice, potatoes and arrow-root. 
Wheat is usually too valuable a human food to be used 
for any other purpose. Corn is the chief source of starch 
in the United States, although the other grains may be 
used when available. In the manufacture of starch from 
corn, the grain is soaked but not allowed to ferment. The 
softened kernels are then ground in water and the starch 
purified. A bushel of corn will yield twenty-eight pounds 
of starch and thirteen pounds of refuse available as 
cattle food. In Europe the potato is the chief source of 
starch. 



12 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

ALCOHOL 

11. Another important product of the grains is alco- 
hol. — For this purpose the starch is first converted by 
means of diastase into maltose, a kind of sugar, and the 
sugar is fermented by means of a yeast plant. The fer- 
mented liquor is distilled, the product being alcohol. The 
diastase is an unorganized ferment present in the germi- 
nating grains. This converts the stored starch of the 
seed into a soluble form, a sugar, which can be absorbed 
by the young plant. The grain to be used as a source of 
alcohol is allowed to germinate, is heated to kill the 
embryos, and is then fermented with yeast. This con- 
verts the sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. If beer is 
the product desired, barley is the grain usually employed 
and the process is stopped at this point. If a distilled 
liquor is desired, the material is distilled. The details of 
the manufacture of the various alcohoHc products belong 
to the study of industrial chemistry. Wine is produced by 
fermentation from the juices of fruits containing sugar, 
especially the juice of the grape. This liquid, when dis- 
tilled, produces a brandy. 

MISCELLANEOUS USES OP THE GRAINS 

12. In the manufacture of starch or alcohol, the grains 
furnish many other substances, often as by-products. 
Among these may be mentioned gluten meal and corn 
oil, the one from the protein and the other from the fat 
of the seed. Corn oil is expressed from the grain before 
the starch is extracted, or it is obtained from the residue 
in the fermentation vats in the manufacture of alcohol. 
Much of the commercial vinegar is produced from malt 



ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSES 13 

liquor, the alcohol being converted into acetic acid by 
means of ferments. Besides being used for the production 
of seed, the grasses mentioned above are extensively used 
for forage, a use which will be discussed in a future chap- 
ter. Corn in one of its varieties or species, sweet corn, is 
commonly used as a vegetable, the kernels being cooked 
when in the milk stage. Other varieties are cultivated for 
ornament and for pop-corn. The pith of the stalks of 
field corn has been used for many purposes, especially 
those involving the production of pure cellulose. 



CHAPTER III 



FORAGE PLANTS 

Scarcely less important than the use of grasses for the 
production of human food is their use for forage. The 
domestic animals, upon which man depends in part for 
his food, in their turn depend upon wild or cultivated 
forage plants. 




Fig. 1. Production of hay and forage in the United States. One large dot repre- 
sents 500,000 tons; one small dot represents 100,000 tons. 

13. The importance of forage plants is shown in part 
by the statistics given in the census report under the 
heading "hay and forage/' which includes plants cut and 
used dry or green for forage, but does not include plants 
used for pasturage. The figures also include an insig- 

(14) 



FORAGE PLANTS 



15 




Fig. 2. Production of timothy in the United States. One dot represents 
100,000 tons. 




Fig. 3. Production of timothy and clover mixed in the United States. One dot 
represents 100,000 tons. 



16 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 




Fig. 4. Production of clover alone in the United States. One dot represents 
10,000 tons. 








Fig. 6. Production of alfalfa in the United States. One dot repreaenta 
20,000 tona. 



FORAGE PLANTS 



17 



nificant amount of root forage. The total acreage in 1909 
is given as 72,280,776, which produced 97,453,735 tons of 
forage valued at $824,004,877. The value of hay and 
forage as compared with other crops is shown in Table 
II (Par. 5). 

The statistics partially classify the hay and forage as 
follows : 

TABLE XIV 

Acreage, Production, and Value of Hay and Forage for 1909 
BY Classes 



Timothy alone . . 

Timothy and Clover 
mixed 

Clover alone 

Alfalfa 

Millet or Hungarian 
grass 

Other tame or culti- 
vated grasses . . 

Wild, salt or prairie 
grasses 

Grains cut green 

Coarse forage . . . 



Acres 



14,686,393 

19,542,382 
2,443,263 
4,707,146 

1,117,769 

4,218,957 

17,186,522 
4,324,878 
4,034,432 



Production j Value 

(Tons) (Dollars) 



17,985,420 

24,748,555 

3,158,324 

11,859,881 

1,546,533 

4,166,772 

18,383,574 
5,367,292 
9,982,305 



$188,082,895 

257,280,330 
29,334,356 
93,103,998 

11,145,226 

44,408,775 

91,026,169 
61,686,131 
46,753,262 



The production of hay and forage of the ten leading 
states is shown in Table XV. The production of all the 
states is graphically shown in Fig. 1. 



TABLE XV 

Production (Tons) of Hay and Forage of the Ten Leading 
States in 1909 

6. Wisconsin .... 5,002,644 

7. Ohio 4,521,409 

8. Illinois 4,354,466 

9. California 4,327,130 

10. Missouri 4,091,342 



1. 


Iowa 


. . 7,823,181 


2. 


New York 


. . 7,055,429 


3. 


Minnesota 


. . 6,036,747 


4. 


Kansas . . . 


. . . 5,936,997 


5. 


Nebraska . . 


. . 5,776,475 



18 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 




FiQ. 6. Production of mil'let or Hungarian grass in the United States. One 
dot represents 5,000 tons. 




Fig. 7. Production of other tame or cultivated grasses in the United States. 
One dot represents 10,000 tons. 



FORAGE PLANTS 
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION 



19 



14. In order to show the relative position of grasses 
among forage plants, a classification is here given based 
upon botanical relationships. Forage plants may be 
divided into three groups. These are: grasses, legumes, 
miscellaneous plants. The first group includes plants 
belonging to the grass family (Par. 118). 




Fig. 8. Production of wild, salt or prairie grasses in the United States. One 
dot represents 10,000 tons. 

15. Legumes. — The second group includes those 
belonging to the natural family Leguminosae or Fabaceae. 
The plants of this family are characterized by the fruit, 
which is a legume or pod. To this family belong the 
clovers, alfalfa, vetches, beans, peas, and many similar 
plants. The importance of legumes as forage plants 
depends upon their high protein content, and hence their 
greater nutritive value. Another important character 
of leguminous plants is their ability to transfer nitrogen 



20 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 




m^----i:" 




I • • Lr 











Fig. 9. Production of grains cut green in the United States. One dot represents 
10,000 tons. 




Fig. 10. Production of coarse forage in the United States. One dot represents 
20,000 tons. 



FORAGE PLANTS 21 

from the air to the soil, thus increasing the soil fertility. 
This transfer is accomplished by means of organisms con- 
tained in nodules upon the roots of legumes, these organ- 
isms, which are allied to bacteria, being able to extract 
free nitrogen from the air. The accumulated nitrogen 
is in part passed on to the host plant. After the removal 
or death of the latter, the roots or such portions as remain 
in the earth return to the soil in a form available for 
absorption such nitrogen as was stored in them. For this 
reason the fertility of soils is increased by the growing of 
legumes, the following crops being correspondingly 
improved. The various grasses cultivated for forage are 
usually grown in combination with legumes either simulta- 
neously or successively, in order to increase the nutritive 
value of the product and at the same time to retain the 
fertility of the soil. 

16. Miscellaneous. — The third group of forage plants 
includes all plants that do not belong to the grasses or 
the legumes. Certain plants of the mustard family, 
especially rape (see Farmers' Bulletin No. 164), are cul- 
tivated for forage. Most of the plants of this group, with 
the exception of rape, are native range plants, deriving 
their importance from their presence in arid or semi- 
arid regions. The most important of those found in 
America are the salt bushes (species of Atriplex) (see 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 108), winter fat {Eurotia lanata 
(Pursh) Moq.) and the prickly pear cactuses (species of 
Opuntia). The cultivation of the opuntias has recently 
been undertaken in the southwestern states and gives 
much promise (see Farmers' Bulletin No. 483). Species of 
Plantago, known to ranchmen as Indian wheat, are 
important winter grazing plants for sheep in the desert 
regions of Arizona and California. 



22 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

CLASSIFICATION OF FORAGE PLANTS 
ACCORDING TO USE 

17. According to the way in which they are used, 
forage plants may be divided into three classes. These 
are: pasture plants, meadow plants, soiling and silage 
plants. 

PASTURE PLANTS 

18. Pasture plants in the widest sense are those which 
furnish forage in situ, that is, those upon which stock 
graze. A pasture is an area supporting or containing pas- 
ture plants. In the restricted sense a pasture is a fenced 
area. In some localities the term is further restricted to 
areas of cultivated plants. Small pastures or areas of 
turf are sometimes known as paddocks.. Pastures in the 
general sense may be divided into two classes, native 
pastures and cultivated pastures. 

Native pastures 

19. Native pastures include all areas of native vegeta- 
tion upon which stock is grazed. Fenced pastures are 
common throughout the United States in connection with 
all farming operations that include the care of live-stock. 
Such pastures may include native prairie grass land, as is 
frequently the case in the region between the Mississippi 
River and the Rocky Mountains, or they may include areas 
that are wooded, that are rocky or sterile, that are too 
wet, or that are otherwise not well suited to field crops. 

20. Ranges. — Unfenced native pasture land is usually 
referred to, especially in the western half of the United 
States, as range, and animals feeding or grazing upon such 



FORAGE PLANTS 23 

areas are said to be upon the range. During the last half 
of the last century vast areas in the West were utilized 
as range for stock, chiefly cattle and sheep. The usual 
practice in raising stock under range conditions is the 
ranch system. The ranch is the headquarters for the owner 
or manager of the farm and the stock. Here are the 
necessary buildings and other equipment. This central 
area is located near a stream or other water-supply, and 
more or less of the land in the vicinity is owned by the 
ranchman. The land lying beyond the limits of the ranch 
is open range, that is, unoccupied land, owned usually 
by the federal government, by the state, or by the bond- 
aided railroads. Such land at that time was of little 
value unless there was access to water. The result of 
these conditions was that the valley land along the 
streams was purchased for the use of the ranches, this 
ownership giving the use and virtual control of an indefi- 
nite area on the upland beyond. The cattle or sheep were 
herded on this range, the distance traveled being limited 
by the necessity of returning from time to time for 
water. Sheep are able to obtain water by eating snow, 
hence they can be herded during the winter upon desert 
regions lacking the ordinary water-supply, provided there 
is sufficient snowfall. It is therefore customary in the 
mountainous regions of the West to herd sheep in the 
mountains in the summer and take them out on the 
desert in the winter. 

Within recent years the demand for farm land has 
increased and the amount of open range has correspond- 
ingly decreased. Ranchmen in many cases have been 
obliged to buy and fence pasture land for their stock. 
Another modification of the original ranch system results 
from the policy adopted by the federal government in 



24 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

connection with the national forests. These reserves were 
formerly available as open range, but now stock is excluded 
except as permission is obtained for grazing by leasing. 
The terms of the lease provide for a maximum number of 
stock at a definite price a head to graze over a limited 
area for a limited season. In the open range system it was 
customary for the ranchmen to arrange among them- 
selves the use of the range. As they did not own or lease 
the open range they could not keep out rival ranchmen 
except by force. This not infrequently gave rise to strife, 
sometimes accompanied by bloodshed, between the 
opposing ranchmen or their herders, especially between 
the cattlemen and the sheepmen. The especial seriousness 
of the contests between the cattlemen and the sheepmen 
arose from the fact that cattle will not willingly graze after 
sheep probably because of some odor, whereas sheep will 
graze after cattle. Furthermore, sheep graze the forage 
much more closely than do cattle, so that after a band of 
sheep has passed over an area there is little or nothing 
left for the cattle. 

In former years ranchmen of the more southern 
regions carried their stock through the winter upon the 
range, depending upon the dry but nutritious grass 
remaining from the preceding season. Not infrequently 
there was loss of stock during stormy weather. In the 
northerly regions, and now, in accordance with the best 
practice also in the South, supplementary feed is supplied 
to stock during the winter months. 

21. Overgrazing. — Wild pasture land will permit of a 
certain amount of grazing without deterioration. Beyond 
this amount the grazing capacity becomes progressively 
reduced. This condition is caused partly by actual injury 
to the vegetation, partly by the reduction of its recupera- 



FORAGE PLANTS 25 

tive power, and partly by the fact that grazing animals 
select the best plants, thus exterminating the valuable 
species, whose place is taken by the unpalatable or worth- 
less weeds. Range that has been grazed beyond its ability 
to recuperate is said to be overgrazed, and when the num- 
ber of stock on a given area is too great, the range is said 
to be overstocked. The amount of stock which the range 
will carry depends upon the kind and amount of vegeta- 
tion, the fertility of the soil, the rainfall, and various 
other conditions. The carrying capacity can be told 
only by experience. A range must be exceptionally good 
to average for a season one cow to every 5 acres, and such 
ranges would be found only in the less arid portion of the 
Great Plains where the grass is abundant. 

Overgrazing may be the result of necessity. The 
ranchman having in his possession a certain amount of 
stock may be confronted with an unfavorable season or a 
diminished range. As the free range decreases owing to 
the use of the land for general farming, or is bought up 
and fenced in by the ranchmen for self-protection, the 
tendency to overstock becomes greater. Too often under 
these conditions, the stockman is confronted with the 
necessity of providing feed for the stock he has, without 
regard to the ultimate welfare of the range. 

22. Rejuvenating worn-out ranges. — As vast regions 
have been made temporarily unfit for grazing by the 
attempt to carry on the range for successive seasons more 
stock than it would bear, there has been an increasing 
pressure for methods that would quickly rejuvenate these 
areas. It has been thought that the seeds of grasses or 
other plants that are as well or better adapted to the 
conditions than was the preceding vegetation might be 
sown on the range to advantage. Many experiments have 



26 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

been tried along this line but with little success. The area 
involved is too large and the expense is too great. There is 
the further difficulty of finding plants better adapted to 
the conditions than those that primarily occupied the soil. 

The plants that tend to come in to replace those sub- 
dued by grazing are usually weedy annuals that have 
little forage value. Such are the numerous species of Old 
World brome-grasses that are now so common on the 
Pacific slope and in some portions of the region to the 
east of this. There is one exception to this, the annual 
herbaceous plant known as alfilaria or *'filaree" {Er odium 
cicutarium (L.) L' Herit.) a member of the geranium 
family. This is an excellent forage plant and is gradually 
spreading on the ranges of the Southwest. 

The only practicable method to rejuvenate worn-out 
ranges is to give them rest. If stock is kept from them they 
will in time return to a condition of productiveness. The 
length of time necessary for an overgrazed range to recu- 
perate depends upon many conditions. If the overgrazing 
has been for a short period a single season of rest may be 
sufficient. If a considerable portion of the original vege- 
tation has been destroyed two or three seasons may be 
necessary. In the latter case the resulting vegetation will 
probably be different from the original and may be less 
valuable. Thoughtful ranchmen are learning to conserve 
their ranges by regulation and rotation and by limiting 
the stock to the carrying capacity of the range. (See 
Bur. PI. Ind. Bulletin No. 117 and Yearbook for 1906.) 

Range grasses 

23. The wild plants upon the range, unless they are 
positively distasteful because of bitter or acrid substances 



FORAGE PLANTS 27 

or are protected by spines, are all more or less grazed by 
stock, especially sheep. If there is an abundance of forage 
the animals select the more palatable and nutritious spe- 
cies. In overstocked areas the animals are forced more 
and more to eat unpalatable or even poisonous species. 

On the prairies and plains of the western states, the 
grasses form the chief element of the forage. The most 
important single species probably is buffalo-grass (Par. 
245). This is the dominant species on the Great Plains 
from the Dakotas to Texas and from the Rocky Mountains 
to the 100th meridian and beyond. This region is collo- 
quially known as the "short-grass country," to distinguish 
it from the prairie regions to the east, where tall grasses 
prevail. On the plains of Texas and northern Mexico, 
the buffalo-grass is gradually replaced by a species of 
similar habit, the curly mesquite (Par. 212). 

The grama-grasses in numerous species in the West 
and Southwest and on the table-land of Mexico form an 
important and nutritive constituent of the ranges. The 
most important ^of these is the blue grama, called in the 
Southwest merely grama, and on the plains grama-grass, 
extending from Manitoba to South America. Like buf- 
falo-grass it is a ''short grass" and is frequently confused 
with that species. The three grasses, buffalo-grass, curly 
mesquite and grama-grass, form a nutritious forage after 
they have been cured in the autumn by the dry climate 
of this region. Hence the range will support stock through- 
out the winter if the conditions are favorable. Fall or 
winter rains, or an early frost, decrease the value of the 
forage. 

Other especially important western grasses are the 
various species of Agropyron, Andropogon and Muhlen- 
bergia. Pine-grass is important in Oregon and Washing- 



28 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

ton. The term ''bunch-grass" is applied to diverse spe- 
cies in different regions. The name refers to any species 
that forms conspicuous tufts. In western Kansas it refers 
to Sporobolus airoides; in Oregon to Agropyron spicatum; 
in other locaHties to various other species. (See Yearbook 
for 1900.) 



CHAPTER IV 

CULTIVATED PASTURES 

Experience has shown that, conditions being equal, a 
greater amount of forage can be grown from a given area 
if the plants used are cultivated. In the broad sense, the 
term cultivation is here used to include the sowing of seed 
or the setting out of plants. But cultivation in the usual 
sense means also that the soil has been prepared for the 
reception of the seeds or plants and may include still 
further the subsequent use of tillage implements. Culti- 
vated pastures, besides producing a greater amount of 
forage, have the further advantage of the choice of plants 
to be grown. Forage plants are cultivated for several 
purposes, as previously indicated, but in the present 
chapter only their cultivation for pasture is discussed. 
Cultivated pastures are usually known as tame pastures, 
to distinguish them from wild or native pastures. In 
regions where native pastures are rare, the term pasture 
may imply that the area has been seeded. Tame pastures 
are conveniently divided into two kinds, permanent and 
temporary. 

PERMANENT PASTURES 

24. As permanent pastures are here included all pas- 
tures that are seeded down with the intention of using 
them for grazing for more than one season. The plants 
used for permanent pasture are primarily grasses. 
Legumes and other plants may be mixed with the grasses 

(29) 



30 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

or may be used temporarily or incidentally for grazing 
but (except sometimes alfalfa) are never used alone for 
permanent pasture. 

25. The two most important pasture-grasses are blue- 
grass and Bermuda-grass. Other pasture-grasses of some 
importance are redtop, brome-grass, orchard-grass, mea- 
dow fescue. Still others are occasionally sown in mixtures 
but in the aggregate are almost negligible from the com- 
mercial standpoint. Some of these are the various fescue 
grasses, such as sheep's fescue and red fescue, rye-grass, 
velvet-grass, and a few others. The most important 
legume used in permanent pasture mixtures is white 
clover. 

Blue-grass 

26. Blue-grass is the standard pasture-grass in the 

region lying east of the Great Plains and north of Arkansas 
and North Carolina and extending southward in the 
mountains. It is used occasionally in other parts of the 
country, but it does not succeed in the southern states. 
It thrives best on limestone soils and is not adapted to 
acid soils. The famous '^blue-grass region" of Kentucky 
lies in the limestone country in the central and northern 
part of the state. The species is commonly called Ken- 
tucky blue-grass and in some localities, especially north- 
ward, it is called June-grass. 

Blue-grass is an aggressive species and, in soil adapted 
to its growth, tends to spread. It thrives in partial shade, 
and, in regions where the summers are hot and dry, it 
invades the open woods, where it furnishes valuable 
pasture. An excellent way to utilize brush-land or open 
timber-land is to clear out the underbrush and weeds and 
sow the land to blue-grass. At first it is necessary to keep 



CULTIVATED PASTURES 31 

down the brush and weeds, but later the blue-grass 
dominates the undergrowth. In the alfalfa regions of the 
West, blue-grass is often looked upon as a weed, because 
of its tendency to invade alfalfa fields. 

The chief objections to blue-grass are the tendency 
to lie dormant during the hot dry midsummer, the diffi- 
culty in establishing a stand, and the low forage yield. 
In spite of these objections, it leads all other pasture- 
grasses in the region where it thrives. 

27. Establishing a blue-grass pasture. — Blue-grass is 
rather difficult to start, as the growth is slow the first 
year. About sixty pounds of seed an acre are sown. It 
is important to have good seed. Many of the failures to 
establish a good stand are due to sowing seed of low vital- 
ity. If the seed is good, thirty pounds to the acre should 
be sufficient. The seed is sown on prepared land, or with 
other crops such as clover, wheat or timothy, or with 
meadow grasses or in early spring upon the snow or upon 
frozen ground. The object of sowing with other crops is 
to utilize the land while the blue-grass is becoming estab- 
lished. In regions adapted to its growth, blue-grass will 
form a permanent pasture, since few plants can drive it 
out unless it is overgrazed. 

Bermuda-grass 

28. Bermuda is the standard pasture-grass for the 

South, occupying there the position of relative importance 
among grasses that blue-grass does in the North. Its dis- 
tribution is from the blue-grass area to the Gulf of Mexico 
and west to east Texas. Bermuda-grass is common in 
the warmer parts of both hemispheres and in the United 
States extends into the arid regions of the West. In the 



32 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

latter regions it is of little importance from a commercial 
standpoint, since the climate is too dry for its develop- 
ment without irrigation. Under irrigation, other forage 
crops give better results. Although Bermuda-grass is 
found under a variety of conditions, it is not a shade- 
loving plant and thrives best in open ground. On the 
uplands of the South it leads all other pasture grasses but 
in the moist lowland along streams and along the coast 
it has a few competitors, especially carpet-grass (Par. 
215) and St. Augustine-grass (Par. 223). It withstands 
heat and drought, is aggressive, forming a permanent 
pasture, and is nutritious. Sometimes legumes (espe- 
cially bur clover {Medicago arobica) and Japan clover 
{Lespedeza striata) are combined with Bermuda. 

29. Establishing a Bermuda pasture. — There are two 
methods of starting Bermuda: by sowing the seed and by 
planting cuttings. The seed is sown at the rate of six to 
eight pounds to the acre and pressed in with a roller. 
The more usual method is to plant cuttings of the stem or 
pieces of the sod. These are dropped at intervals in shallow 
furrows and covered with a plow or dropped upon a pre- 
pared surface and pressed in with the foot. 

Bermuda-grass is very aggressive, for which reason 
it becomes a bad weed when it invades cultivated fields. 
In cultivated soil it produces hard, vigorous rootstocks 
that give it the name of wire-grass. It can be eradicated 
by plowing in the hot weather of midsummer, or by 
smothering out by means of rank-growing shade crops, 
such as cowpeas. Bermuda-grass does not usually pro- 
duce seed in the United States except in Florida, Arizona 
and California; hence it invades fields slowly and with 
care can be kept out without much difficulty. The com- 
mercial seed is imported. 



CULTIVATED PASTURES 33 

Other pasture-grasses 

30. Besides the two important and well-known pasture- 
grasses mentioned for the North and the South, there are 
several others that are used to a considerable extent. 
Each has its special merits and its peculiar drawbacks. 
The acreage of some of these grasses is large but in all 
cases falls far below that of blue-grass and Bermuda- 
grass. 

31. Brome-grass. — This is variously known as awnless 
brome, Hungarian -brome, and Bromus inermis, the last 
being its botanical name. It is one of the few grasses that 
has been successfully introduced into cultivation in 
recent times. The United States Department of Agricul- 
ture and the state experiment stations have demonstrated 
its adaptability to the conditions prevailing in the north- 
western states. It has been shown to be an excellent 
pasture-grass for the region from Kansas to Manitoba 
and west to Washington, which is too dry for the eastern 
grasses. It gives good results east of this region, but must 
there compete with timothy, clover and blue-grass. 
Brome-grass is a native of Europe. (See Bur. PL Ind. 
Bulletin No. 111.) 

32. Redtop. — This is a well-known widely distributed 
meadow-grass which will be further discussed under 
meadow-grasses. (Par. 48.) Its chief importance as a 
pasture-grass is due to the fact that it thrives on acid 
soil where blue-grass fails. It is a good pasture-grass for 
moist localities in the timothy region and especially in the 
coastal region from Virginia to New England. Redtop is 
called ''herd's-grass" in Pennsylvania and in some 
other localities. 

33. Orchard-grass. — This is an excellent species for 
c 



34 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

the blue-grass region, especially when combined with 
other grasses. Its chief faults are that it grows in tus- 
socks and that the seed is expensive. The former draw- 
back militates chiefly against its use as a meadow-grass 
as the hummocks interfere with mowing. It withstands 
drought somewhat better than does timothy or blue-grass, 
hence is useful along the western edge of the timothy 
region. In eastern Kansas, it is used as a pasture-grass in 
combination with meadow fescues. (See Bur. PL Ind. 
Bulletin No. 100.) 

34. Meadow fescue. — This is a common European 
forage-grass which has many excellent qualities but has 
not been extensively grown in the United States. It does 
not compete with timothy and blue-grass chiefly because 
the seed is more expensive and less reliable, faults it shares 
with several other good grasses. It is adapted to the same 
region as timothy and blue-grass. A taller form or 
agricultural variety with more open panicle is grown 
under the name of tall fescue. The seed of meadow fescue 
produced in the United States is nearly all grown in east- 
ern Kansas. Meadow fescue is sometimes incorrectly 
called English blue-grass. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 
361.) 

35. Rye-grasses. — Of these there are two kinds, the 
English rye-grass and Italian rye-grass. These are both 
standard forage-grasses of Europe but are infrequent in 
cultivation in this country. They are excellent grasses 
and deserve a wider use. The poor quality and high cost 
of the seed, together with the traditional importance 
attached to timothy and blue-grass, probably account 
for their restricted use. 

Canada blue-grass. — This grass will not compete with 
Kentucky blue-grass on limestone soils, but in portions 



CULTIVATED PASTURES 35 

of the humid region where the latter does not thrive it 
serves a useful purpose. Nearly all the American seed is 
grown in the province of Ontario, Canada. (See Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 402.) 

Tall meadow oat-grass. — This is a good grass with poor 
seed habits, the seed shattering out badly in harvesting 
and handling. The species is adapted to the timothy 
region but is only sparingly grown. 

Velvet-grass. — This species is of little value except on 
sterile soil where other grasses will not grow. It is well 
established on the Pacific coast, especially from northern 
California to British Columbia, where it is common in 
swamps, grass-land, waste places and open ground gen- 
erally. It is not much utilized for forage except on the 
sandy land around the Columbia River. Animals do not 
relish the hay unless they have acquired a taste for it. 

36. Southern pasture-grasses. — In the moist regions 
along the Gulf coast, carpet-grass is a valuable and 
nutritious grass. This is a native of the tropics extending 
into the southern United States. It thrives in open, moist 
land where it forms a green carpet. It is not cultivated, 
but comes into natural pastures voluntarily and persists 
because it withstands grazing and trampling. Another 
species found especially in mucky soil along the Atlantic 
coast from South Carolina to southern Florida is St. 
Augustine-grass. This is similar in its habits to carpet- 
grass. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 509.) 

37. Two common tropical grasses, Para-grass and 
Guinea-grass, should be mentioned although except in 
the extreme southern portion they are not hardy in the 
United States. Para-grass, a native of Brazil and cul- 
tivated in the lowlands throughout tropical America, 
is occasionally used for pasture in southern Florida and 



36 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRAS;SES 

southern Texas. It is useful in wet or almost swampy- 
land, where it will furnish a large quantity of forage. 
Para-grass does not well withstand grazing because its 
extensive stolons, being above ground, are killed or 
injured by trampling. Guinea-grass grows on drier land 
than that best suited to Para-grass. It is extensively 
used for pasture, hay and green fodder at low altitudes 
in the tropics. It withstands grazing well and its numer- 
ous basal shoots furnish a large amount of palatable 
forage. 

TEMPOKARY PASTURE 

38. Temporary pasture, as here understood, refers 
to pasture obtained incidentally from plants grown for 
other purposes, or to that obtained from annual plants. 
The usual kind of temporary pasture is that from plants 
grown primarily for hay. It is a common practice to 
graze meadows after the hay has been cut. Care must 
be taken that the meadow is not grazed too closely and 
the plants are not injured by the trampling of animals in 
wet weather. Alfalfa is commonly grazed in the West, 
where this may be the chief forage crop grown. There is 
objection to allowing cattle and sheep to graze on alfalfa 
and clover since these legumes are likely to cause bloat- 
ing. Fall-sown grain is often used for pasture, and stand- 
ing corn-stalks furnish considerable fodder after the corn 
has been removed by husking in the j&eld. 

Annual plants for pasture 

39. Grains, especially rye, are sometimes grown 
primarily for pasture, being sown usually in the summer or 
fall. Sorghum in some of its varieties is grown for pasture 



CULTIVATED PASTURES 37 

in the South and Middle West. Rescue-grass is used in 
some parts of the South for winter pasture. Rye-grass 
can also be used to advantage for winter pasture in the 
South as it grows rapidly and produces feed sooner than 
perennial pasture-grasses. Rape and sometimes other 
cruciferous plants such as turnips and kale are sown for 
pastures. Various legumes may be used for this purpose, 
often in connection with their use as green manure or as a 
cover-crop. 



CHAPTER V 
MEADOW PLANTS 

Meadow plants are those used for hay. A meadow is 
an area upon which are growing plants that are to be cut 
for hay. Meadows may be conveniently divided into two 
classes, wild or native meadows, and tame or cultivated 
meadows. 

The hay product of the United States is one of the most 
valuable of the agricultural crops, the total yield of hay 
and forage according to the thirteenth census being 
97,453,735 tons, valued at $824,004,877. 

NATIVE MEADOWS 

40. There are three kinds of native meadows, accord- 
ing to the grass that grows upon them. These are prairie, 
fresh marsh, and salt marsh. In all cases the chief portion 
of the forage is made up of various species of grasses, the 
other plants being incidental or even harmful. Prairie 
hay is cut from native prairie that is sufficiently dry to 
be used for field crops. Because available for cultiva- 
tion, the area of prairie meadow is decreasing as the land 
is gradually broken by the plow. Open grass-land, such 
as swales, or the low areas along streams or ponds that are 
intermediate between arable land and swamps, is often 
reserved permanently for meadow. 

In the prairie region and in the eastern portion of the 
Great Plains, the chief constituents of prairie hay are 

(38) 



MEADOW PLANTS 39 

bluestem {Andropogon furcatus), little bluestem (Andro- 
pogon scoparius), switch -grass (Panicum virgatum), 
Indian reed (Sorghastrum nutans), purple-top (Tridens 
flavus), tall grama (Bouteloua curtipendula) , and wild rye 
{Elymus virginicus, and E. canadensis). In the swales 
or ''sloughs/' as they are called in that region, the chief 
grass is cord-grass or slough-grass {Spartina Michauxiana). 
An important hay-grass in depressions or valleys on 
the plains is Colorado bluestem {Agropyron Smithii). 
Throughout the mountain regions of the West the native 
hay may consist of a great variety of indigenous grasses, 
the species of Poa, Calamagrostis, Agropyron, and Ely- 
mus glaucus usually predominating. 

On the western ranches where irrigation water is 
available, it is customary to flood the meadow land in the 
valleys. If too much water is applied, or if it is allowed to 
stand on the meadow for too long a time, the valuable 
grasses are gradually replaced by less nutritious plants, 
especially by wire-grass, which is a kind of rush (Juncus 
balticus Willd.). 

41. The commercial production of wild hay is chiefly 
in the area from Oklahoma to Manitoba, including the 
eastern portion of the Great Plains and extending east- 
ward through Minnesota into Wisconsin. In the northern 
portion of this area, a large proportion of the wild hay is 
cut from marsh land, the most important constituents 
being bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis) and reed canary- 
grass (Phalaris arundinacea) . Much of this hay land is 
too wet for cultivation. At the time of harvest the soil is 
sufficiently dry to support the mower and horses. In the 
marshes of Wisconsin and Minnesota the soil is so moist 
that broad shoes are sometimes attached to the horses' 
feet to prevent them from sinking into the soft ground. 



40 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

42. Salt marsh-grass is utilized for hay in many locali- 
ties along the seacoast. Large areas of marsh land sub- 
ject to the diurnal tides or to occasional high tides are 
useful for no other purpose than the grass crop that they 
produce. When utilized for hay these marshes are drained 
by 'open ditches. In some cases the sea is kept out by 
dikes, in which case the land becomes productive and 
valuable. The hay from salt marshes is of considerable 
value for fodder, the value depending on the kind of grass 
and the degree of salinity of the soil. Much of this hay 
is used for litter for stock and for packing-material. The 
chief constitutents of salt marsh-hay are switch-grass 
(Panicum virgatum), little bluestem (Andropogon scopa- 
rius), black-grass, a kind of rush {Juncus Gerardii Loisel.), 
all of value for forage, and several species of Spartina, or 
cord-grass (Spartina glabra and S. juncea being the 
most important), these latter being used chiefly for 
packing. 

TAME MEADOWS 

43. Tame meadows may be divided into two classes, 
permanent and temporary. It is only to the former class 
that the term meadow is popularly appHed. 

Permanent meadows 

44. Permanent meadows are those that have been 
seeded down with forage plants with the intention of 
maintaining them for a series of years to produce hay. 
The chief meadow plants used in the United States are: 
of the legumes, alfalfa, red clover and to a limited 
extent alsike clover; among the grasses, timothy and 
redtop. 



MEADOW PLANTS 41 

45. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is the most important 
forage crop in the United States. In the irrigated regions 
of the West it is almost the only forage plant grown and 
is there used for both hay and pasture. Alfalfa was intro- 
duced from Europe by the Spaniards and attained 
importance in our western states simultaneously with 
irrigation. Its use spread eastward in the arid and semi- 
arid regions until it reached the borders of the timothy 
region. Within recent years this crop has been success- 
fully introduced in many parts of the East and South. It 
does not thrive on an acid soil, hence the necessity of using 
lime in many parts of the East in preparing the land for 
alfalfa. Where a good stand is obtained, a permanent 
meadow is formed, yielding cuttings every four to six 
weeks during the growing season, two or three cuttings 
in the more northern regions, as many as ten in the hot 
southern valleys of California. The meadow lasts indefi- 
nitely, but sooner or later suffers from the incursions of 
various weeds and must be broken up and reseeded. As 
alfalfa is not a grass, it will not be further discussed here, 
but the student is referred for detailed information to 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 339 from the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

46. The clovers are legumes belonging to the genus 
Trifolium. Certain allied plants are also known as clover 
but with a modifying term, such as bur clover (Medicago 
arabica Huds.), sweet clover (Melilotus alba Desv.), Japan 
clover (Lespedeza striata (Thunb.) Hook. & Arn.), all 
belonging to the family Leguminosse. The true clovers 
include the common red clover {Trifolium pratense L.), 
which is usually referred to merely as clover, alsike (T. 
hybridum L.), white clover (T. repens L.), and crimson 
clover {T. incarnatum L.). The first two are used for 



42 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

meadow, the third for pastures and lawns, the fourth as a 
cover, soiHng and green manure crop as well as for hay. 

The most important of the clovers and one of our most 
important forage plants is red clover. This thrives in the 
humid region (Par. 110) and is often sown with timothy. 
Its chief use is for hay but it is also used as a cover-crop 
and for green manure. In common with alfalfa and other 
legumes, or even with rape, there is danger of causing 
bloating in cattle and sheep pastured upon clover. 

Alsike is better adapted than is red clover to wet soil 
and hence is utilized in meadows too wet for the latter 
and is usually sown with redtop. Alsike is of some impor- 
tance as a forage plant but the amount used in comparison 
with red clover is insignificant. (See Farmers' Bulletins 
No. 455 on red clover. No. 550 on crimson clover, No. 
485 on sweet clover. No. 441 on Japan clover.) 

47. Timothy is the great meadow-grass of the north- 
eastern states which produces the standard hay of the 
market. Timothy is not so nutritious as some other 
grasses, yet it is the leading meadow-grass because it 
combines as does no other grass the requisite qualities. 
It is palatable, fairly nutritious, easily grown, and the 
the seed is cheap and of good quality. The cheapness of 
the seed is much influenced by the good seed habits of 
the plant. It produces seed abundantly and the heads 
grow to about the same height, ripen about the same time, 
and do not wastefuUy shatter the seed. 

Timothy is grown alone or with clover, and in either 
case may be sown with the addition of a nurse-crop of 
grain. It may be sown with wheat in the fall, the clover 
being added in the spring, or with clover in the fall, no 
nurse-crop being used. The addition of the nurse-crop 
is an attempt to gain time while the timothy and clover 



MEADOW PLANTS 43 

are getting started. The term nurse-crop is applied to 
any quick-growing crop that supposedly protects another 
crop while it is young. Wheat sown in the fall produces a 
crop the following summer, and the timothy and clover 
have a better start than if sown after the wheat is cut. 
However, in most cases if the timothy and clover are sown 
together in the fall on well-prepared land, no time is lost, 
for a full hay crop will be produced the following year. 

If well seeded down timothy will produce crops for 
several years, but experience has shown that the best 
results are obtained by making the meadow a part of a 
rotation. On good, arable land, with suitable application 
of fertilizer, a timothy and clover meadow will yield heavy 
crops the first and second crop-year. After this the 
amount of the crop decreases. Hence it is more profitable 
to plow up and plant to another crop such as corn, some- 
times with an intervening year devoted to pasture. 

48. Redtop. — On lands where timothy is at its best, 
there is no competing meadow-grass; but, on soil too 
moist for the best results with timothy, which is often 
also acid soil, redtop is the most satisfactory meadow- 
grass. The region where redtop is most extensively grown 
is the Atlantic slope from New England to Maryland, 
although it is also grown to a limited extent throughout 
the timothy region. It can also be grown to advantage 
somewhat farther south than can timothy. 

49. Johnson-grass is an excellent meadow-grass for 
the states from Georgia to Texas. It yields large crops of 
nutritious and palatable hay and can be grown easily 
and cheaply. On the other hand it is a very aggressive 
species, propagating readily by seed and by strong under- 
ground creeping stems or rootstocks. When once in pos- 
session of a field it is difficult to eradicate. For this reason, 



44 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

in spite of its good qualities, it is looked upon as a per- 
nicious weed. It is not wise to introduce this species on 
land that is free from it. A meadow should be a part of a 
rotation, and Johnson-grass does not readily give up its 
place to the following crop. When a permanent meadow 
is desired, this grass, if its weedy habit be not taken into 
consideration, is probably the best for the purpose in 
those parts of the South, such as the black soil of central 
Texas, where it reaches its highest development. It is 
less satisfactory as a pasture-grass since, not well with- 
standing grazing, the yield decreases after two or three 
years. If a farm is already infested with Johnson-grass 
it is well to take advantage of its useful qualities as a 
meadow-grass. As this species tends to become sod-bound 
in a few years owing to the rapid multiplication of root- 
stocks, the field should be plowed every two or three years. 
50. Eradication of Johnson-grass. — Johnson-grass can 
be eradicated, but the process requires more care than in 
the case of most weeds. Plowing in the fall with a turn- 
ing plow, harrowing out and removing the rootstocks, 
sowing the field to early- maturing grain, oats or rye, 
cut for hay in the spring, and following with a cultivated 
crop, will keep the grass in subjection. In the region where 
Johnson-grass reaches its greatest development, alfalfa 
also thrives. Hence an excellent method to utilize an 
infested field is to sow alfalfa. This is done in the fall 
after the field has been plowed and harrowed to remove 
the rootstocks. The alfalfa soon smothers out most of 
the Johnson-grass, and the hay is not injured by the pres- 
ence of such of the latter as may remain. Johnson-grass 
shares with sorghum the tendency to poison stock through 
the production, under certain conditions, of hydrocyanic 
acid. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 279.) 



MEADOW PLANTS 45 

51. Other meadow-grasses. — Various grasses other 
than the three mentioned are recommended for meadow 
mixtures but none is used to any considerable extent. 
Orchard-grass is a desirable grass, yielding a good crop of 
nutritious hay. The chief objection to it is that it grows 
in heavy tussocks that make an uneven bed for a mowing 
machine. Furthermore the seed is rather expensive. The 
cost of the seed also militates against meadow fescue, 
another good meadow-grass. The prestige of timothy is 
probably one of the reasons why some of the less known 
grasses are not used to a greater extent. Tall meadow 
oat-grass and the two rye-grasses, English and Italian, 
are often recommended for mixtures. Velvet-grass is of 
little value except on sandy land where better grasses 
will not thrive. Other grasses mentioned in seed catalogues 
and occasionally used in mixtures are rough-stalked 
meadow-grass, fowl meadow-grass, crested dog's-tail, 
sweet vernal-grass, and meadow foxtail. 

It should be added that the two important pasture- 
grasses, blue-grass and Bermuda, are sometimes used for 
hay in the regions where they reach their maximum 
development. Guinea-grass is occasionally used for hay 
in the tropics, for which purpose, because of its numerous 
leafy basal shoots, it is well adapted; but farm practice 
in the warm regions usually calls for a soiling crop rather 
than a hay crop. 

52. Slender wheat-grass. — The only native meadow- 
grass whose seed has become a commercial product is 
slender wheat-grass (Agropyron tenerum). It is a native 
bunch-grass of the western states and is adapted to the 
semi-arid region of the Northwest, where it should form a 
permanent meadow or pasture. It has not been sufficiently 
tested as yet to determine its comparative value. 



46 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

Temporary meadows 

53. Under temporary meadows are included annual 
crops sown or planted for hay, although fields of such 
crops are not often popularly designated as meadows. 
The plants most used for this purpose are: the grains, 
foxtail millet, sorghum, corn and certain legumes, such as 
cowpea and field pea. Several other plants are used 
locally or sporadically. 

54. Grain hay.— Probably the most important group 
of annual plants used for the production of annual 
meadows is that of the grains. From the commercial 
standpoint grain hay is of importance only in the western 
states and particularly on the Pacific coast. In this por- 
tion of the United States, except in the mountain meadows, 
there is little native vegetation suitable for hay. Under 
irrigation, alfalfa is the standard forage crop; but, over a 
large area where the rainfall, though small, comes chiefly 
during the winter, it is possible to grow crops of grain 
without irrigation. The grains used for hay in the Pacific 
coast states are mostly wheat and oats. In some locali- 
ties barley, especially beardless barley, is used. Another 
important constituent of the grain hay is wild oats (Avena 
fatua, A.fatua glahrata, and A. barbata). This is widely 
distributed, and an abundant volunteer crop may appear 
in a field after a grain crop is harvested. In Washington 
and Oregon chess or cheat is sometimes cultivated 
for hay. 

55. The relative importance of grain hay may be 
estimated from the data for California taken from the 
report of the thirteenth census and given in the following 
table. Important as is the alfalfa crop, its value is exceeded 
by that of grain hay. 



MEADOW PLANTS 



47 



TABLE XVI 

Acreage, Production and Value of Grain Hay in California 
Compared with the Total Hay and Forage and with Alfalfa 



Crop 


Acres 


Amount (tons) Value 

i 


Hay and forage .... 

Alfalfa' ........ 

Grain hay 


2,533,347 

484,134 

1,604,745 


4,327,130 
1,639,707 
2,019,526 


$42,187,215 
13,088,530 
24,056,727 



In the eastern states, grain hay, especially oats, is 
used on the farm in the sheaf, but nowhere does it reach 
any considerable commercial importance. Straw, as a 
by-product of grain-growing, is of some importance. Its 
use as forage is of secondary rank and is mostly confined 
to the farm, the mature straw having little nutritive value. 
When it enters commercial channels it is mostly for 
bedding and packing, though specially prepared straw 
may have other uses such as the making of hats. 

MILLETS 



56. By millet is meant foxtail millet as distinguished 
from several other grasses called millet, but with a modify- 
ing term, such as proso millet (Par. 217), pearl millet (Par. 
221), Japanese barnyard millet (Par. 218) and African 
millet (Par. 210). Millet as grown in the United States is 
found in two forms, common millet and Hungarian-grass 
(Par. 220). A form of common millet was much adver- 
tised a few years ago as Golden Wonder millet. The 
variety known as German millet is also a form of the 
common millet, differing chiefly in its longer season of 
growth. Millet is grown in the eastern half of the United 
States, especially in the region from Oklahoma to Iowa. 
It produces an abundance of nutritive and palatable hay 



48 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

relished by all kinds of stock and in general is a valuable 
forage plant. Horses sometimes appear to suffer injury 
if fed millet exclusively but cattle and sheep are free from 
this danger. If cut too late the bristles of the seed-heads 
may become troublesome. It can be sown after a grain 
crop or in place of other crops when there has been a failure 
to secure a stand. The tenderness of the growing plants 
render early sowing impracticable. (See Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 101.) 

57. Sorghum is grown in many parts of the world and, 
according to the variety, for many different purposes. 
The seed is used for food for man in parts of the Old 
World, and in the United States that of certain forms, such 
as kafir, is used for stock feed. One variety is called broom- 
corn (Par. 211). The saccharine sorghums or sorgo con- 
tain much sugar in the sap and are used for the commer- 
cial production of sugar (Par. 97). The saccharine varie- 
ties such as the Orange and Amber, and also some of the 
non-saccharine such as kafir and milo, are grown for 
forage. Those which are grown for the seed may furnish 
forage also, the stalks being cut and shocked as in corn, 
the grain being thrashed out or the heads cut off and the 
remainder used as rough forage. In the semi-arid region 
where drought-resistant hay crops are needed, sorghum 
is much used as a hay crop. For this purpose it is sown or 
drilled thickly, so as to produce numerous slender stems, 
and the crop mowed and cured as hay. In some parts of 
the Middle West, sorghum is known as "cane." (See 
Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 246, 288, 322, 448, 552.) 

58. Com or maize is sometimes sown thickly and used 
for hay as is described above for sorghum. The most 
common use of corn as forage is in connection with its 
use as a grain crop.- The corn may then be treated in 



MEADOW PLANTS 49 

two general ways. It may be allowed to mature in the 
field, the grain being taken away, allowing the standing 
stalks to remain. This is known as husking the corn from 
the row or from the field. The stalks are then pastured 
during the winter, the animals feeding upon the dead 
leaves and upon any ears that may have been overlooked 
by the husker. Mature cornstalks, however, have little 
nutritive value. The other way is to cut the cornstalks 
and shock them in the field, before the ears are mature 
and while the leaves are yet green. The shocks remain 
until the forage is cured and the ears have matured. The 
ears may be husked in the field and the forage stored in 
stacks or sheds or the shocks may be hauled to the barns 
where the husking is done either by hand or by machinery. 
The forage or corn-fodder produced in this way is much 
more nutritious than that which is matured before husk- 
ing, and the grain suffers little loss by the process. Corn 
and kafir are sometimes cut and bound in bundles by 
machinery, a process which lessens the labor of shocking. 

59. Other grasses producing hay or coarse fodder. — 
Several other grasses are used locally for the production 
of coarse hay. Some of these have undoubted merit but 
usually must compete with the more important species 
mentioned previously. Others are native or weedy species 
that are utilized locally. A more complete account of 
some of these grasses is given in Part II. 

60. Japanese barnyard millet. — Several varieties are 
grown in Asia and have been tried in America, but with 
little success. One variety has been advertised under the 
name of billion-dollar grass. They require plenty of water 
to produce crops, and in the humid regions will not com- 
pete with other grasses. They have some value under 
irrigation in the Southwest. 

D 



50 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

61. Proso millet. — This is the common millet of 
Europe, where it is grown extensively for forage and for 
the seed, the latter being used for food for animals and 
also among the poorer classes for man. In this country 
it has been tried repeatedly, but the results have not 
been very satisfactory. It does not compete with other 
plants for forage, but produces imder favorable condi- 
tions an abundance of seed. This may prove valuable for 
poultry. The seed can be used also for stock, but shatters 
rather readily. Proso millet is also called broom-corn 
millet because of the resemblance of the inflorescence to 
that of broom-corn. Another name is hog millet. 

62. Pearl millet and teosinte are sometimes used for 
hay, but usually for soiling (Par. 75). 

Texas millet is a native weedy species found in the 
valley of the Colorado River and neighboring valleys in 
southeast Texas. The volunteer crop on rich land is cut 
for hay, this being of good quality. Texas millet is also 
known as Colorado-grass. 

Crah-grass may be mentioned here, as it is frequently 
cut for hay in the South, where it appears in fields as a 
weed. The hay is of good quality, but is mostly used on 
the farm and does not often appear on the market. 

Chess or cheat {Bromus secalinus) is grown for hay 
locally in Oregon, especially in the Willamette Valley. 
This in other regions is a weed in grain fields but there 
has been utihzed successfully. 

63. Several annual legumes are used for the produc- 
tion of hay or coarse forage. They are usually used as a 
cover-crop or as green manure in connection with other 
farm processes. They are used extensively, especially in 
the South, as a part of a rotation in order to maintain 
the fertility of the soil. As stated previously (Par. 15), 



MEADOW PLANTS 51 

the legumes have the power to add nitrogen to the soil 
by means of the root nodules and the nitrogen-fixing 
organisms contained therein. The choice of the legume 
for this purpose depends largely upon the secondary uses 
that can be made of the crop. It may be made into hay 
or may be cut green and used for soiling or for silage 
(Par. 76). In the timothy region, clover is a staple crop 
(Par. 46). In the South, where no perennial legume is 
adapted to the conditions prevailing over most of the 
region, annual legumes are used. It is true that alfalfa 
is grown with success in many parts of the South, such as 
the alluvial valleys of the Mississippi and Red Rivers, and 
the black soil of central Alabama, but even here an annual 
crop may be desired for the other purposes mentioned 
above. The commonest of the annual legumes in the 
South are the cowpea and velvet bean. In the North, 
the field pea is much used, and in middle regions vetch 
and crimson clover. 

64. The cowpea (Vigna sinensis (Torner) Savi.) is a 
trailing vine with trifoliate leaves and slender, bean-like 
pods. Some varieties are bushy and trail only slightly. 
The cowpea is the standard legume for the South. Its use 
has extended gradually northward until some varieties 
are now grown as far as Michigan. It is a warm-weather 
species and cannot be sown until the season is well 
advanced. In the South this limitation presents little 
difficulty, but in the North only quick-growing and more 
hardy varieties can be used. The hay from cowpea is 
excellent in quality, but, like all succulent forage, requires 
special care in harvesting and curing. It should be 
remembered that the feeding value of a legume like the 
cowpea is much greater than its fertilizing value. Hence 
the dual use of the crop, the greater part of the vines 



52 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

and leaves being used for hay or green feed, the remainder 
being turned under for green manure. When grown on 
sterile soil it may be necessary to turn under a larger 
proportion in order to produce humus. (See Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 318.) 

65. Velvet bean {Stizolobium Deeringianum Bort). — 
This coarse rank-growing vine is similar to the cowpea but 
gives a much greater growth. The velvet bean is not so 
hardy as the cowpea and is used only in the South. It 
has given excellent results in Florida. (See Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 509, and Bur. PL Ind. Bulletin No. 179). 

66. The vetches are upright or reclining plants with 
tendrils at the ends of the compound leaves. In a general 
way they resemble the garden pea, but the leaflets and 
flowers are smaller. There are two common kinds of 
vetch in use in the United States — spring vetch {Vicia 
sativa L.) and hairy vetch {V. villosa Roth). The one 
most grown is the latter, since it better withstands 
drought. The vetches are usually sown with grain, the 
latter supporting the vetch, thus producing a combina- 
tion that can be harvested with greater ease than can the 
vetch alone. Vetch may be used as a winter crop in the 
South or as a summer crop in the North. (See Farmers' 
Bufletins Nos. 515, 529.) 

67. Crimson clover {Trifolium incarnatum L.). — This 
is a tall clover with long heads of crimson flowers. It is 

rather extensively used in the region from New Jersey to 
North Carolina. It should be cut when in flower. If cut 
later the fuzzy hairs around the head prove troublesome, 
especially to horses. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 579.) 

Field pea {Pisum arvense L.). The field pea, resembling 
the garden pea in habit, is much used in Canada and our 
more northern states. The field pea requires a cool, 



MEADOW PLANTS 53 

moist climate, hence is not adapted to the regions farther 
south. It is usually sown with grain for the reasons men- 
tioned under vetches. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 224.) 

The soybean (Soja Soja (L.) Karst., Glycine hispida 
Maxim.) is an upright plant that tends to become bushy. 
In southeastern Asia, where the species is native, it is 
extensively cultivated, the seed being used for human 
food. In the United States the soybean is grown for both 
seed and forage. The seed, rich in protein, is used for 
feeding stock, usually in the form of soybean meal. As a 
forage plant, it can be utilized for hay or for pasture. 
The soybean is adapted to the cotton-belt and north- 
ward into the southern part of the corn-belt. Being 
much more drought-resistant than the cowpea it can be 
grown in the southern part of the Great Plains. (See 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 372.) 

Sweet clover {Melilotus alba) is a vigorous grower and 
makes excellent hay, the chief objection being that stock 
do not readily eat it until they have acquired a taste for 
it. The plant is a biennial, producing the flowers the 
second season. The hay should be cut before seed is 
formed. Sweet clover is also known as Bokhara clover. 
(See Farmers' Bulletin No. 485.) 

Florida beggar -weed (Meiboniia tortuosa (Swartz) 
Kuntze). This has been used with success in Florida and 
the Gulf states. It is a tall plant with trifohate leaves and 
flat, constricted pods that break up into one-seeded joints 
that adhere to wool or clothing by means of a covering of 
hook-like hairs. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 509.) 



CHAPTER VI 

HAY AND GREEN FEED 

The product of meadows may be fed immediately or 
it may be preserved. If it is fed immediately, the process 
is known as soiling, and crops grown for this purpose are 
called soiling crops. To preserve forage it must be pro- 
tected from decomposition or rotting. This may be 
accomplished by removing a sufficient proportion of water 
by drying, in which case the product is called hay. Or the 
forage may be preserved green, the destructive decom- 
position being prevented by the exclusion of the air. The 
preserved product is then called silage. 

HAY 

68. In the wide sense, hay is dried vegetation used as 
food for animals. In this sense ripened buffalo-grass and 
standing cornstalks, grazed during winter, are hay. In 
the restricted sense, the word hay is applied to the cut 
and dried or cured product of meadows, more particularly 
the product of the smaller grasses and clovers. The coarse 
hay of cornstalks and other large grasses is more often 
called fodder. Ordinarily meadow hay is made by cutting 
with a mower and allowing the cut material to lie in the 
sun until partly dried, after which it is raked into wind- 
rows, then placed in bunches or cocks and finally in 
stacks or under a roof. The process is varied to suit con- 
ditions. The object is to remove sufficient moisture to 

(54) 



HAY AND GREEN FEED 55 

prevent molding when stored. In dry, sunny weather 
httle difficulty is experienced in producing good hay; but, 
in humid climates, hay-making is a process requiring much 
care. Rain and dew delay the drying and reduce the 
quality of the hay, or they may render the product entirely 
worthless. It is readily seen that weather conditions 
become an important factor in hay-making. Putting hay 
in cocks and covering with some kind of impervious shield 
is an attempt to prevent the absorption of water. 

69. In arid regions the hay may be cut and stacked 
the same day, but in humid regions the curing may extend 
over several days with the corresponding risk from rain. 
Succulent plants, such as clover, alfalfa and cowpea, 
demand especial care because the stems require a longer 
time than the leaves for curing. The foliage drops off 
readily and is lost when there is much delay in curing. 
As the leaves are the most important part, this loss 
becomes serious. The vines of cowpea and velvet bean 
are so succulent that special methods of curing are fre- 
quently adopted. It is a common practice in the South 
to cure the vines on upright racks or poles so as to 
allow a circulation of air. A single pole with the vines 
arranged around it, makes a tall, slender bunch or cock 
that gives much lateral surface in proportion to the area 
of the top. 

70. Stacks. — Hay that is stacked in the open deterio- 
rates on the exposed portion and there is a considerable 
percentage of loss from the weathering of the outer por- 
tion of the stack. Careful building of the stack and a 
covering of reeds or canvas reduces the loss. Hay stored 
in barns suffers practically no loss, and in sheds only in 
proportion to the exposed surface. On the large ranches 
of the West it is impracticable to store in barns the large 



56 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

quantity of hay produced, and the chmatic conditions 
render this unnecessary. 

71. Hay in the West. — When hay is made on a large 
scale such as prevails on many western ranches, the pro- 
cess involves the use of several apphances not often seen 
on the smaller farms of the East. The mower and horse- 
rake are common ever5rwhere. To transport the bunches 
of grass hay to the stack a sweep or bull rake is often 
used. This is an implement with large teeth, that slides 
along the ground and under the bunches. For alfalfa it is 
better to load on wagons as the sweep tends to shatter 
the foliage. The sweep can not be used for long distances. 
At the stack the hay is transferred from the wagons or 
from the sweeps by large forks worked by horse-power. 
These forks are operated in connection with some form of 
pole derrick, or less frequently with a cable derrick. Nets 
or slings are often used to unload wagons. These are 
placed at intervals in the load, which can then be hoisted 
off in three or four parts with a derrick. 

72. The standard hay on city markets in the East is 
timothy and all other kinds are estimated in comparison 
with timothy. The demand here is for hay suitable for 
horses, and custom has come to consider timothy as best 
satisfying this demand. Clover mixed with timothy may 
increase the feeding value but may also reduce the mar- 
ket value in these markets. The demand for timothy in 
preference to other hay is largely due to the wishes of the 
livery stables, timothy being considered by horsemen to 
be the best hay for livery horses. 

In localities in which prairie hay enters the market, 
it is demanded in preference to alfalfa for livery horses. 

73. Baled hay. — In recent years the baling of hay has 
become an important industry and baled hay has almost 



HAY AND GREEN FEED 57 

replaced bulk hay upon the market. Of course all hay 
that enters commercial channels is baled, bulk hay being 
confined to the local market. Even for use upon the farm 
or ranch the hay may be baled for convenience in hauling 
and storing. As baled hay occupies only 140 to 160 cubic 
feet to the ton there is a great saving of space over hay 
sold in bulk. The standard bale weighs 70 to 250 pounds; 
the small bale, much used in the South, 70 to 100 pounds; 
the medium bale, 100 to 150 pounds, and the large bale, 
requiring two men to handle, 150 to 250 pounds. 

Any kind of hay, straw, or fodder may be baled, but 
the baled hay in commerce in the United States consists 
mostly of timothy, prairie hay, alfalfa, and grain hay, the 
latter largely confined to the Pacific coast. The classes of 
hay recognized in the East by the National Hay Associa- 
tion are timothy, clover-mixed (timothy and clover), 
clover, and prairie, with two to five grades each. For 
transportation to trans-oceanic points, especially Alaska 
and the Philippines, the hay may be double compressed. 
For this purpose hay obtained by loosening ordinary 
bales is compressed by powerful hydraulic or electric 
presses similar to those used for compressing the cylindri- 
cal bales of cotton. The resulting bale is very compact, 
the square form occupying 85 cubic feet to the ton, and 
the cylindrical bales only 55 cubic feet. (See Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 508.) 

SOILING AND SILAGE CHOPS 

74. Soiling is the system of feeding to animals in in- 
closures green forage recently cut from the growing plants. 

Silage is the system of preserving fresh green forage in 
suitable more or less air-tight receptacles. 



58 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

Both these systems are attempts to furnish green feed 
without turning the animals out to pasture. These systems 
are most used and have reached their highest develop- 
ment in connection with dairying. The advantages are that 
the quantity and kind of material fed can be controlled, 
that there is less waste than in pasturing, that crops can 
be utilized which would be impracticable for pasture, and 
that stock are saved the work of traveling about in search 
of food. Silage still further has the advantage of continu- 
ing the supply of green feed through the winter. 

75. Soiling. — The practice of soiling is well adapted 
to intensive farming. When the price of land is high it is 
usually more economical to raise large crops of forage on 
well-fertilized fields and feed green than to have pasture, 
since the latter can not produce so great a quantity of 
feed. On the other hand the labor required for soiling 'is 
much greater. The cost of labor compared with the price 
of the products as milk or beef, determines the system to 
use. By proper care in selecting crops, a continuous yield 
of green forage may be obtained through a large portion 
of the growing season. 

Many crops are used for soiling, but in the main they 
are annuals and often succulent plants. They include the 
grains, the succulent grasses, such' as corn, or sorghum, 
and the annual legumes mentioned before (Par. 63). Peren- 
nial grasses and clovers may also be used, but the advan- 
tage is less, as they do not give so large a yield as do 
annuals. Teosinte and pearl millet are used locally with 
success, the former giving, on the rich moist valley lands 
of Louisiana, enormous yields of forage. 

76. Silage. — In this process the green forage is placed 
in an air-tight receptacle called a silo. This may consist 
of a pit or room in a barn, or more commonly a separate, 



HAY AND GREEN FEED 59 

usually cylindrical structure or building. In this is placed 
the forage usually as it comes from a cutting machine. 
The material is packed tight by tramping in order to 
exclude as much air as possible. If necessary, water is 
added to facilitate the packing. If properly prepared the 
silage or ensilage will keep for many months. The material 
is canned on a gigantic scale though it has not been steril- 
iz'ed. More or less fermentation takes place but not of a 
character to interfere with its feeding value, nor with its 
palatability for stock that has become accustomed to the 
the characteristic taste of silage. If the packing of the 
silo has been done carelessly the material rots and is 
worthless. 

The silo is built tall and narrow in order to give greater 
pressure, thus packing the silage more closely. Further- 
more, the smaller surface exposed at the top gives less 
opportunity for spoiling. The top layer exposed to the 
air rots and must be discarded, unless the feeding is com- 
menced as soon as the silo is filled. The top layer may be 
of chaff or other material of little value. If there is a leak 
in the silo the silage will spoil at this point. The silo may 
be made of cement, brick or any other building material, 
but because of the lower cost is usually made of wood. It 
should be at least 24 feet high to give the necessary pres- 
sure and bulk. 

The silage should be fed rapidly enough to prevent the 
exposed upper layer from having time to spoil. For this 
reason it is not expedient to feed less than ten cows. It is 
essential to pack the silage tightly as it is placed in the 
silo. This forces out most of the air. The fermentation 
uses up the small amount of air remaining and if there are 
no leaks the fermentation ceases. 

Any kind of forage may be preserved in a silo, but the 



60 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

plant most used for the purpose is corn. For silage, the 
corn should be planted more thickly than when grown for 
grain. The crop should be made to yield the maximum 
amount of grain, rather than the largest ears. The corn 
should be cut when the grain is glazed, as at this stage 
there is the maximum amount of dry matter. In the 
North, varieties should be chosen that will reach the 
glazed stage before frost, (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 556.) 



CHAPTER VII 

LAWNS 

A LAWN is an open area covered with grass and kept 
closely mown. The term is applied especially to tracts 
near dwellings, but may be applied to closely mown areas 
near other buildings or in parks. Other plants than 
grasses are occasionally used, wholly or in part, such as 
white clover. The lawn is primarily for ornament, com- 
plete in itself or part of a general place in landscape 
gardening. 

77. Essentials for a lawn. — An ideal lawn consists of 
a firm even sod supporting a vigorous growth of vegetation 
of uniform texture and pleasing color, the whole kept 
closely mown. With rare exceptions the conditions can 
be supplied only by grasses. A grass to be suitable for 
lawns should propagate by rootstocks or stolons, should 
be fine and soft in texture, and should be dark green in 
color. The most popular lawn-grass is Kentucky blue- 
grass. The only other grasses that fulfil the requirements 
mentioned are Rhode Island bent and creeping bent, both 
varieties of redtop. Another important lawn-grass is 
Bermuda-grass. Several other grasses are used for special 
conditions (Par. 81). 

78. Blue-grass is an ideal lawn-grass throughout the 
region to which it is adapted. It thrives best in a moist 
moderately cool climate and on limestone soils. Blue- 
grass forms a firm even sod which, under proper conditions 
and treatment, is permanent. The texture is fine and 

(61) 



62 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

soft and the dark green color is agreeable to the eye. It 
can be grown successfully without irrigation in the north- 
eastern states as far south as Virginia and Tennessee, and 
farther in the mountains, and west to Minnesota and 
eastern Kansas, also in the humid region of Oregon and 
Washington, and in the western mountains. Throughout 
most of the northern half of the United States beyond the 
limits mentioned it can be grown with the aid of irrigation. 
Even in the humid region it may be necessary to supply 
water during the dry periods in the summer. 

In the southern half of the United States, except in 
the mountains, blue-grass does not thrive even when 
irrigated, although, except in the lower coastal plain, it 
may with special care make a fair growth. In the humid 
region it may fail because of the character of the soil. 
Thriving best on limestone soils, it fails to give good 
results on acid soils. Hence, blue-grass is not adapted to 
much of the coastal region from New England to Virginia. 
Often it is practicable to correct the soil acidity by the 
addition of lime. 

79. Rhode Island bent is especially adapted to that 
portion of the humid region in which blue-grass fails 
because of soil acidity, as it thrives under moist, moder- 
ately acid conditions. Rhode Island bent does not pro- 
duce vigorous creeping rootstocks as does blue-grass, but 
nevertheless will form a fairly firm and uniform sod. 
For a description of Rhode Island bent and its relation 
to redtop, see Par. 234. Creeping bent is another form of 
redtop, with creeping or stoloniferous stems, which pro- 
duces a lawn of good color and texture. 

80. Bermuda-grass answers all the requirements of 
an ideal lawn grass except that of color. To many people 
the light gray-green color is not so pleasing to the eye as 



LAWNS 63 

the dark green of the blue-grass. In the southern portion 
of the United States where the chmate is too hot in sum- 
mer for blue-grass, Bermuda-grass is the common lawn- 
grass, except in certain localities along the coast. It is the 
only lawn-grass that will withstand the summer condi- 
tions on the uplands of the South. The foliage is not 
resistant to frost, hence lawns turn brown or yellow in 
winter, but the plants are not killed except by greater 
cold than usually prevails south of Virginia. St. Lucie- 
grass is a variety of Bermuda especially adapted to lawns, 
as it is fine in texture. This form is much used in Florida. 

81. Less important lawn -grasses. — St. Augustine- 
grass is a coarse-leaved species used on moist, mucky soil 
of the lower coastal region. It is in use as far north as 
Wilmington, North Carolina. As the seed is not on the 
market it is propagated by cuttings. 

Carpet-grass is another species, with comparatively 
coarse foliage and creeping or stoloniferous stems, adapted 
to the moist region of the Gulf coast. It occurs naturally 
there and tends to invade the open moist grassland of 
pastures and lawns. The seed is not on the market but 
the plant may be propagated by cuttings. 

Canada blue-grass is sometimes used on sterile clay or 
lime-poor soils of the humid regions, where blue-grass 
does not thrive. 

Fescue grasses are rarely used alone but are often 
sown in mixtures. Various-leaved fescue is used under 
trees on lawns as it thrives better than other grasses in 
partial shade. All the fescues used for lawn mixtures, red 
fescue, hard fescue, sheep's fescue, firm-leaved fescue and 
various-leaved fescue have short, firm leaves that require 
little cutting, but they are all bunch grasses and it is diffi- 
cult to produce with them a uniform turf. 



64 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

Buffalo-grass gives excellent results in the semi-arid 
region of the Great Plains. The seed is not on the market 
but the grass is easily grown from cuttings. It forms a 
firm sod like Bermuda-grass and has the same objection 
of being light green in color. Buffalo-grass requires no 
mowing as the foliage remains short and curly. 

Rye-grass is sometimes used for lawns though it pos- 
sesses few of the necessary characteristics. It is used 
chiefly in mixtures to produce quick results as it grows 
vigorously the first season. It is coarse and bunchy and 
not suited to a lawn when sown alone. 

Korean lawn-grass is coming into use along the coast 
from South Carolina to Florida. 

82. Lawn mixtures. — One of the characteristics of an 
ideal lawn is uniformity of texture. This can be obtained 
only when a lawTi is made up of a single species. To pro- 
duce a lawn of uniform texture requires special care. 
From the standpoint of practicability it may not 
always be convenient or even possible to fulfil the con- 
ditions necessary for an ideal lawn. Hence, the use of 
mixtures by which better results in some ways may be 
obtained than by using a single species. This apphes 
particularly to the humid regions. The character or con- 
dition of the soil may be such as to prevent the produc- 
tion of a uniform stand of a single species. It is well 
known that a properly chosen mixture will in these cases 
produce a thicker turf and will do so in a shorter time than 
if a single species is grown. 

The chief or even the only objection to a mixture is 
the lack of uniformity. A closely mown lawn will show 
variations in color corresponding to the different species 
of which it is composed. Rye-grass is sometimes included 
in a mixture to give quick returns, the other components 



LAWNS 65 

developing later. Grain, especially rye, may be used for 
the same purpose. This practice is not to be recom- 
mended if a first-class lawn is desired. It is to be looked 
upon as a makeshift to take the place of careful prepara- 
tion of the soil. 

White clover is often used in mixtures, the only dis- 
advantage being that it interferes with the uniformity 
of appearance. On the other hand, it has a distinct 
advantage in that it acts as a soil renovator and tends to 
maintain its fertility, this being due to the presence of 
nitrogen-fixing nodules on the roots (Par. 15). 

83. Preparation of the soil. — It is necessary that the 
soil intended for a lawn should be placed in the best pos- 
sible condition for receiving the seed. It should be ren- 
dered light and porous to the depth of 10 inches or more 
by suitable tilth, should be well drained, and should be of 
the best consistency, that is of the combination of sand, 
clay and humus known as rich loam. It is usually neces- 
sary in addition to thorough tillage to fertilize the soil. 
Well-rotted barnyard manure, free from weed seed, is 
the best fertilizer, but not always easy to obtain. Com- 
mercial fertilizer may be used alone or with barnyard 
manure, the amount depending on the nature of the soil. 
Poor soil may take 400 pounds an acre of bone-meal. 
Wood-ashes supply potash and render heavy soils lighter. 
Lime should be added when necessary to counteract 
acidity if blue-grass is to be used. 

84. Seeding. — Only the highest grade seed should be 
used. There is great variation in the weight of blue-grass 
seed, depending on the proportion of chaff. Good seed 
should weigh about 22 pounds to the bushel. Of such 
seed three bushels should be sown to the acre. The seed 
should be sown- evenly and rolled or lightly raked in. The 

E 



66 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

seeds are small and should not be covered deeply. It is 
important to keep the lawn as free as possible from weeds 
while becoming established. After the grasses have formed 
a firm sod or turf, weeds have little chance to intrude. 
If the soil and the applied manure be free from weed seeds, 
the task of weeding during the first season will be much 
simplified. 

85. Subsequent care. — The lawn should be frequently 
mowed, watered, weeded, and rolled if it is to be brought 
to its maximum effectiveness. If unfavorable circum- 
stances have caused the death of the grass in spots or if 
in small areas the grass failed to grow, here the weeds 
appear later. Such spots should be reseeded. It is much 
easier to obtain a uniform stand at the first sowing than 
to patch up afterward an irregular stand. Some weedy 
grasses make a good appearance early in the season but 
later die out, leaving unsightly bare patches in the sum- 
mer. This is true of crab-grass and annual blue-grass 
(Poa annua). 

86. Watering. — Blue-grass lawns usually require for 
their best development more water than is supplied by the 
natural rainfall. This is especially true during the dry 
periods that usually occur during summer. Artificial 
watering by garden hose is the usual method of meeting 
the deficit. The water should be applied in the late after- 
noon or evening as damage may result from watering dur- 
ing the heat of the day. Water should not be applied in 
full force direct from the nozzle, as the soil may be washed 
away from the roots. A spray nozzle prevents this. 
Thorough soaking from time to time is better than more 
frequent light sprinkling. Light and frequent sprinkling 
encourages a shallow root-system, readily injured by 
drought. 



LAWNS 67 

87. Turfing. — On account of the care and trouble 
necessary to seed a lawn it is a common practice in cities 
to produce results quickly by laying on fresh turf cut from 
an old grass plot. If properly done this will give good 
results. The turf or sod should be pure grass free from 
weeds and should be laid on well-prepared, rich, loamy 
soil such as described under seeding. The custom of apply- 
ing a layer of vegetation, part grass and part a miscellane- 
ous collection of weeds, to a soil consisting of the refuse 
from the building operations will never give satisfactory 
results. Such a lawn is a permanent source of regret and 
no amount of faithful watering can materially improve 
it. It is better to dig it up and start again in the proper 
manner. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 494.) 



CHAPTER VIII 

GRASSES FOR MISCELLANEOUS PURPOSES 

Besides the three chief uses of grasses, there are others 
of considerable but comparatively minor importance. 
These uses will be considered under the following heads: 
Ornamental grasses, Soil-binders, Sugar-producing grasses, 
Textile grasses, and other uses. 

ORNAMENTAL GRASSES 

88. Grasses may be grown for ornament because of 
their handsome inflorescence, such as that of the plume- 
grasses, or the alleged beauty of the foliage, such as that of 
the ribbon-grass and other grasses with variegated leaves. 
Some are used for making dry bouquets, the delicate 
inflorescence holding its form after being detached. 

There are three large species that are commonly used 
for lawn decoration. They are plume-grass, giant reed, 
and Eulalia. Plume-grass has long narrow leaves taper- 
ing to a fine point and a large white or pink feathery 
plume 1 to 2 feet long. The leaves are in a large cluster at 
the base and the plume is raised on a tall slender stalk 
several feet high (Par. 246). Another plume-grass less 
frequently seen in America is the Ravenna-grass (Par. 
206). Giant reed has broad leaves scattered along the 
stem as in corn, and a large oblong plume (Par. 247). 
Eulalia has clusters of long narrow leaves at the base and 
a slender stalk rising a little above the leaves, bearing 

(68) 



GRASSES FOR MISCELLANEOUS PURPOSES 69 

rather small (6 to 12 inches long) fan-shaped brownish 
plumes (Par. 204). Another grass of this habit, Thysolcena 
agrostis, is often grown in the tropics. A common orna- 
mental garden grass is ribbon-grass or gardener's garters. 
Several small grasses are grown for bouquets, such as 
trembling or quaking grass. 

89. The bamboos are important ornamentals in the 
tropical regions and are much cultivated in Florida and 
California. A few species are hardy farther north. Among 
these may be mentioned Arundinaria japonica, a shrubby 
form growing 5 to 10 feet high, and certain species of 
Phyllostachys. There are several species of Phyllostachys 
introduced in cultivation but their specific identity is in 
doubt as many have not been known to flower. 

SOIL-BINDING GRASSES 

90. In order to prevent banks and slopes from wash-' 
ing or sand-dunes from blowing, they may be planted 
with grass or other vegetation. Such plants are known 
as soil-binders. More particularly, those that hold sand- 
dunes in place are called sand-binders. Any kind of 
vegetation will hold soil or sand in place, but plants used 
by man for this purpose are provided with strong creep- 
ing rootstocks that quickly penetrate and bind the soil. 
Grasses most frequently used for the holding of banks 
and slopes are Bermuda-grass in the South and Kentucky 
blue-grass in the humid region. The giant reed is used 
along irrigation ditches in the Southwest. Japanese honey- 
suckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.) is proving excellent for 
holding slopes in Maryland and Virginia. 

91. Sand-dunes. — The fixing of shifting sand-dunes is 
an important industry in Europe where much waste land 



70 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

has been reclaimed. In the United States there are several 
areas of sand-dunes, the most important being on Cape 
Cod near Provincetown, Cape Henry, Virginia, along the 
south end and east side of Lake Michigan, and along the 
Columbia River, Oregon, in the semi-arid region. Sand- 
dunes are formed by the wind blowing the dry sand. 
Dunes that are bare of vegetation shift gradually as the 
prevailing wind blows the sand over the crest. When 
vegetation becomes established the wind is imable to 
move the sand and the dunes become fixed. 

Moving dunes may do much damage when formed in 
the vicinity of the works of man by covering up buildings 
or railroad tracks, or, when formed near streams or 
harbors, by diverting the course of the one or filling the 
other, or when formed near a forest which they may over- 
whelm. Sand-dunes are formed along the sandy shores 
of the ocean or of large lakes when the prevailing winds 
are from the water. The waves are constantly throwing 
up sand which, when dry, is blown upon the beach, form- 
ing hills. The same often occurs along rivers in dry regions, 
as along the Columbia above the Dallas, and along the 
Arkansas in western Kansas. 

92. Reclaiming sand-dunes. — Moving dunes are 
worthless for agricultural purposes and may be a menace 
to property. The first step in reclaiming such dunes is 
to fix the sand by applying a covering to prevent its being 
shifted by the wind. Interior dunes have been success- 
fully fixed in Europe by covering with cut heather, a 
common plant in sandy wastes. In other places brush or 
rows of sticks thrust into the sand have served the pur- 
pose. One of the most successful methods has been the 
planting of beach-grass. After the shifting of the sand 
has been prevented by any of these methods, trees are 



GRASSES FOR MISCELLANEOUS PURPOSES 71 

planted which in time produce a forest, the dunes being 
thus permanently fixed. The waste land has now become 
productive, as the forest under proper care yields an 
income. The trees cannot be started on the shifting sand. 

93. Sand-binders. — Except near the seashore the 
function of grass or of an inert covering is temporary, as 
the land is ultimately converted into forest. Along the 
seashore where a barrier dune is formed the action of the 
spray from the ocean prevents the growth of trees. On 
this barrier dune which protects the forest in the rear from 
the aggressive action of the sand, the grass covering must 
remain indefinitely and must be kept in condition by con- 
stant attention after it is planted. 

A sand-binder must be a plant that will thrive in the 
sand, and that possesses an abundance of vigorous 
creeping rootstocks that will bind the sand and prevent 
its being blown by the wind. The best sand-binder is 
beach-grass, or marram -grass (Ammophila arenaria), a 
native of the sea beaches of Europe and of Atlantic North 
America as far south as North Carolina. It is also found 
along the shores of the Great Lakes. An important char- 
acter of beach-grass is that it thrives best where the sand 
is drifting. Here it continually rejuvenates and grows up 
through the sand as it is covered. A few other grasses have 
been tried but none give as good results. 

94. Fixing sand with beach-grass. — Beach-grass is 
propagated by transplanting and not from seed. The 
planting is best done in the fall between maturity, which is 
about September, and the time when the ground freezes. 
It can also be done in spring before growth starts. Plants 
for the purpose are chosen from a nearby plot where the 
grass is growing vigorously. Those chosen should be two 
years old and should have one or two nodes on the root- 



72 • A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

stock at the base. It is from these nodes that the roots 
spring. The planting is best done on a cloudy day, A 
hole is made by thrusting a spade or other sharp imple- 
ment into the sand, the plant is placed in the opening 
and the sand pressed around it with the foot. If beach- 
grass does not grow in the vicinity, it may be necessary 
to establish a preliminary plantation. It is useless to 
attempt to grow beach-grass in interior arid regions. 

In America, notable fixation work has been done near 
Provincetown, Massachusetts, at Manatee and other 
points along the east shore of Lake Michigan, and at 
Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. The latter place was 
once a sandy waste but is now a beautiful park. The pre- 
liminary steps here were the planting of beach-grass. 
(See Bur. PL Ind. Bulletins Nos. 57, 65.) 

SUGAR-PRODUCING GRASSES 

95. The sugar of commerce is obtained from four 
sources, sugar-cane, sugar beet, sorghum, and sugar maple. 
The amount from the last two is comparatively insignificant. 
Chemically, commercial sugar is cane-sugar or sucrose. 

96. The sugar-cane is a large perennial grass grown 
in all tropical countries. In the United States its growth 
is chiefly confined to the lowlands of Louisiana. This 
state in 1900 produced 132,000 tons of sugar. The same 
year the two largest sugar-producing countries yielded, 
Java 650,000 tons, and Cuba 440,000 tons. These figures 
refer to sugar from sugar-cane.* It is interesting to note 
that Europe produced the same year over 4,000,000 tons 
of beet-sugar, or a third more than the total world produc- 
tion of sugar from the cane. The thirteenth census report 

*Sadtler, Industrial Organic Chemistry, ed. 3, pp. 166, 167. 



GRASSES FOR MISCELLANEOUS PURPOSES 73 

states that in 1909 Louisiana produced 4,941,996 tons of 
sugar-cane, which was an increase of 57 per cent over 
that produced in 1899. 

Sugar is contained in the juice of the cane, this being 
extracted from the stalks by crushing between rollers. 
The juice is neutralized with hme, boiled and clarified, 
and concentrated in vacuum pans. The sugar separates 
in crystals. The remaining liquid is called molasses. Rum 
is made by distilling fermented molasses. The sugar-cane 
often flowers abundantly in the tropics, but rarely produces 
seed. It is propagated by cuttings of the stem. 

97. Sorgho, or sorghum. — As indicated in Par. 57 
there are several varieties of sorghum, some of which, the 
saccharine sorghums, have a sweet juice containing enough 
cane-sugar to make the extraction a commercial possibility. 
In the region from Kansas to North Carolina a small 
amount of sorghum is grown for the production of sugar, 
most of which appears on the market in the form of syrup. 
The total amount of sorghum syrup produced in the United 
States in 1909 was 16,532,282 gallons.* The five leading 
states were Kentucky, 2,733,683; Tennessee, 2,076,339; 
Missouri, 1,788,391; Arkansas, 1,140,532; North Carolina, 
1,099,346. 

TEXTILE GRASSES 

98. The most important textile grass is esparto, the 
fiber of which is used for paper and cordage. It is grown 
chiefly in Spain and North Africa. In Algiers the grass is 
called alfa. Annually there are imported into England 
over 200,000 tons of esparto tc be used for the manufacture 
of paper. Two species of grasses furnish the esparto of 
commerce — Stipa tenacissima and Lygeum sparteum. 

*13th Census. 



74 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

OTHER USES 

99. The bamboos are of vast importance to the native 
people of the regions where these gigantic grasses grow. 
The culms or stems are used for building purposes, the 
split bamboo is woven into mats, screens and a variety of 
other articles, the sections of the stems with the solid 
partitions are used as utensils, and the fiber is used for 
paper. The wood is extremely hard, durable and flexible. 
The bamboo is probably put to a greater variety of uses 
than is any other plant. The straw hats known on the 
market as Bangkok hats are made from bamboo. 
Ischcemum angustifolium is used in India as a substi- 
tute or adulterant of jute for cotton baling for the Ameri- 
can trade. Rice straw is extensively used in Japan and 
other eastern countries for matting, a large proportion 
of the wrapping of heavy freight being of this material. 
Rice is also used for paper, although the so-called rice- 
paper is made from the bark of the paper mulberry. The 
straw of grains is used for making straw hats, an especially 
fine quality being used in Italy. 

100. Green-manuring. — Grasses, especially the grains, 
are used, as are legumes and some other plants, for green- 
manuring. For this purpose, the plants are turned under 
by plowing about the time they reach maturity. Heavy 
soils are made lighter, since the green vegetation tends to 
produce humus. It is usually more profitable to combine 
green-manuring with pasturing as one can scarcely afford 
to give up an entire season to a crop for turning under. 
Furthermore, land that most needs the manure will give 
the smallest crop to turn under. Stable manure accom- 
pHshes results much sooner, but, of course, is not always 
available. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 278.) 



CHAPTER IX 
WEEDS 

A WEED is a plant troublesome to man. In the more 
restricted sense it is an herbaceous plant that becomes 
aggressively troublesome in cultivated fields. Plants 
may become weeds because of their intrusiveness, as 
bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.) and Canada thistle 
(Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.) or they may be able quickly 
to occupy waste land, dooryards, or roadsides, as knot- 
weed (Polygonum aviculare L.), horse weed (Erigeron 
canadensis L.) and ragweed (Ambrosia trifida L.). Others 
may become weeds in pastures because, not being eaten 
by stock, they thrive at the expense of the palatable 
species. 

101. Classes of weeds. — Weeds may be divided into 
three classes according to method of growth. These are 
annuals and biennials, perennials with crowns, and peren- 
nials with rhizomes or creeping roots. Methods of eradi- 
cating depend upon the group to which the weed belongs. 
Annual weeds may become abundant, but are not difficult 
to eradicate as they may be pulled up or removed by 
cultivation. Perennial weeds with crowns are usually not 
aggressive but may become conspicuous in pastures, 
especially those that are over-grazed. Certain kinds of 
plants usually classed with this group differ in having an 
upright fleshy caudex capable of producing adventitious 
buds and shoots. These may become troublesome weeds 
in pastures or lawns. The dandelion (Taraxacum Taraxa- 

(75) 



76 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

cum (L.) Karst., T. officinale Weber.) is a familiar exam- 
ple of this group. Cutting off the plant below the crown 
does not destroy the dandelion, as adventitious buds may be 
produced on the cut root from which new shoots develop. 

102. Perennial weeds with creeping rhizomes or creep- 
ing propagating roots include the most troublesome 
species, as the widely spreading rhizomes or roots are 
difficult to remove completely from the soil. Portions of 
the rhizomes remaining in the soil may give rise to new 
shoots. Creeping propagating roots are to be distinguished 
from creeping rhizomes or rootstocks, which are modified 
stems. Creeping roots possess no scales or modified 
leaves, but have the structure of roots. They will, how- 
ever, if they are propagating roots, have the power to 
produce adventitious buds. Some weeds with creeping 
roots are bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.) and sheep 
sorrel (Rumex Acetosella L.). None of the weedy grasses 
possesses creeping roots. Creeping rhizomes indicate 
their character as modified stems by the presence of scales 
that mark the nodes at regular intervals. To this group 
belong the white morning-glory (Convolvulus Sepium L.), 
the nut-grass (Cyperus rotundus L.) and Johnson-grass. 

103. Weedy grasses. — Grasses may be of all degrees 
of weediness. Many species that are classed as weeds are 
harmless since they are found only in waste places or 
along roadsides. Among these are goose-grass, crowfoot- 
grass and old-witch grass. Only a few of the more impor- 
tant weedy grasses will be mentioned here. 

104. Annual weeds. — In the eastern states the com- 
mon species are green foxtail, yellow foxtail, and upon 
sandy land, the sandbur. Here, and more especially in 
the South, crab-grass is a common weed. All these yield 
readily to cultivation. Crab-grass is particularly trouble- 



WEEDS 77 

some because it thrives late in the season after the usual 
cultivation of the crops has ceased. Two important 
weeds in blue-grass lawns are crab-grass and annual blue- 
grass. The latter thrives in the spring, making an appear- 
ance pleasing to the eye, but later dies, leaving unsightly 
bare spots. In the same way crab-grass, later in the 
season, leaves brown patches as the plants die. 

105. On the Pacific coast other species of grasses 
become weeds. A very noticeable group are the annual 
species of Bromus. They are of some value as forage 
when young but soon become too dry and prickly from the 
awns of the inflorescence to be palatable. The principal 
species are Bromus commutatus, B. hordeaceus, B. rubens, 
B. tectorum and B. villosus (Par. 260). Another species, 
B. secalinus, the common cheat or chess, is found in grain 
fields throughout the northern United States. The wild 
oat is abundant on the Pacific coast in grain fields and on 
fallow lands, but possesses a mitigating character in that 
it can be used for hay (Par. 239). Several weedy species 
belong to the genus Hordeum, the inflorescence of which 
possesses numerous rough awns that are troublesome 
when mixed with hay. There are three annual species, 
H. pusillum, H. Gussoneanum and H. murinum. The last 
is a common weed in alfalfa fields where it is called fox- 
tail and barley-grass. 

106. Perennial weedy grasses. — Of the group that 
lack creeping rhizomes there are few that are troublesome. 
One of the worst of them is Hordeum juhatum, which in 
the West often infests alfalfa fields. It is called squirrel- 
tail-grass, but locally is known as foxtail in Wyoming, 
barley-grass in Utah, and tickle-grass in Nevada. 

Many species become conspicuous in overgrazed pas- 
tures or ranges because not eaten readily by stock. To 



78 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

this group belong the spear grasses, species of Aristida, 
whose sharp fruits with the triple awns become a nuisance 
or even a serious pest. These fruits and others such as 
those of Hordeum and Sitanion work their way into the 
nostrils and eyes of animals and into the wool of sheep, 
or form hair-balls in the stomach. 

107. The seriously troublesome weeds in cultivated 
soil are those possessing creeping rhizomes. There are 
three species of grasses that belong in this category. They 
are Bermuda-grass, Johnson-grass and quack-grass. 
Bermuda-grass has already been mentioned (Par. 28). 
In cultivated soil the rhizomes become large and vigorous 
and the plant is usually known then as wire-grass. Ber- 
muda is a common weed in corn and cotton fields through- 
out the southern states. Johnson-grass is exceedingly 
troublesome in the black soils of the southern states (Par. 
49). Quack-grass is a bad weed in the humid region of 
the northeastern states. It is also called quick-grass, 
quitch-grass and couch-grass. 

These three species, like all weeds with rhizomes, 
cannot be eradicated by pulling them up or by cultivation 
unless all of the rhizomes are removed, since a single 
piece of rhizome may give rise to a shoot. They may be 
greatly reduced in this way, however. On a large scale 
they may be kept in subjection by plowing and harrow- 
ing out the rhizomes, after which they are burned or 
removed or spread so as to be dried out by the sun. 
Another general method for eradicating such weeds is to 
smother them with a vigorous crop, such as grain or 
alfalfa. Small patches may be attacked to advantage with 
the hoe, cutting off all the green shoots. If this is done 
frequently the rhizomes are exhausted of their vitality 
and are unable to produce more shoots. 



CHAPTER X 

GRASS-CROP AREAS 

In previous chapters, reference has been made under 
each grass crop to the area in the United States in which 
it thrives. In this chapter a resume will be given of the 
conditions and limitations of these areas. The crop areas 
depend entirely upon climatic conditions. Soil conditions 
modify or limit the distribution of crops within each area. 
So far as crops are concerned, the climatic conditions are 
moisture and temperature. 

108. Moisture. — The moisture, so far as it concerns 
crop areas, depends on the annual rainfall and its seasonal 
distribution. Locally crops may receive water by seepage 
from rivers and springs but such sources have no effect 
on the general distribution of crops. The seasonal dis- 
tribution of the rainfall is of as much importance as the 
annual rainfall, for the crops require water during the 
growing season. The amount of water required by a crop 
varies with the evaporation, which depends in part 
upon the humidity. Without going into the physical and 
meteorological details, it will readily be understood that 
latitude and altitude modify greatly the relation between 
a crop and its water-requirement. There is also an inti- 
mate connection between temperature and rainfall. Soil 
conditions modify the water requirement in various ways, 
but not sufficiently to have any material effect on the 
large crop areas, 

109. The temperature affects evaporation and hence 

(79) 



80 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

the water-requirement. It also affects directly the growth 
of crops. There is an optimum temperature for each 
crop at which it thrives best. The temperature through 
the growing season is of the most importance, though for 
perennials the minimum winter temperature may be a 
limiting factor. 

110. The timothy area. — This area extends from New 
England to the southern boundary of Virginia and farther 
south in the mountains and west to Minnesota and east- 
ern Kansas, approximately to the 96th meridian. In 
general this is the humid area. The rainfall is sufficient 
on the average for the growing, without irrigation, of 
the common meadow- and pasture-grasses, timothy 
and blue -grass, and the legume, red clover. The 
rainfall is distributed through the summer or growing 
season. 

There are other humid regions in the United States 
in the mountains of the western portion, isolated areas 
where the rainfall is sufficient and the altitude not too 
great. Timothy can be raised in Colorado up to about 
9,000 or even 10,000 feet altitude. At higher latitudes 
the altitudinal limit is lower. The most important humid 
region of the West is the upper Pacific coast region lying 
west of the Cascades and extending from Puget Sound 
south into northern California. This differs from the 
eastern humid region in having cooler summers and milder 
winters with considerable rainfall. This region is emi- 
nently adapted to pasture crops because of the mild, moist 
winters. It is not so well adapted to hay crops because 
of the difficulty of curing hay in the moist climate. (See 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 271.) 

In the northern part of the timothy area, the Canada 
field pea is much used (Par. 67). In the eastern part along 



GRASS-CROP AREAS 81 

the coast where the soil is often acid, redtop becomes the 
dominant forage grass (Par. 32). 

111. The Bermuda-grass area. — This area occupies 
the region south of the timothy area and wesi ^o include 
eastern Texas. Approximately this is also the cotton 
region. The annual rainfall is sufficient for such forage 
plants as timothy and clover but the summers are too 
long and hot for the development of these crops. Some of 
the annual plants of the timothy region such as the grains, 
vetches, and crimson clover, can be grown in the south as 
winter forage crops. The rye-grasses, though short-lived 
perennials, can be treated as annuals and will give good 
results when sown in the fall for winter forage. (See Far- 
mers' Bulletin No. 509.) 

112. The Great Plains. — This is the area lying between 
the Rocky Mountains and the two areas mentioned above 
and extending from north to south across the United 
States, and beyond its boundaries in each direction. The 
annual rainfall along the eastern border is about 30 inches. 
This decreases westward until it is about 15 inches at the 
base of the mountains. This amount is too small for the 
production of crops adapted to the humid region but many 
specially adapted crops can be raised without irrigation 
in the eastern half of the belt. The region is devoid of 
forest except along the streams of the eastern part. 
Before the land was occupied by man these plains were 
covered with grass, the dominant species being buffalo- 
grass, grama-grass and curly mesquite, all low grasses 
that form a close sod. The early settlers used the sod to 
make sod houses. 

The Great Plains are eminently adapted to stock- 
grazing and there are throughout, but more particularly 
in the western part, numerous large stock ranches. The 

F 



82 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

water of the comparatively few streams is supplemented 
by wells, many of which are over 100 feet deep, and by 
dams in the ravines or "draws" that catch and hold the 
run-off from the storm water. The rainfall may come in 
torrential storms and much of the water, instead of being 
absorbed by the soil, runs off in the watercourses and is 
lost to the area. The native vegetation has already been 
described (Par. 23). 

113. Forage crops for the Great Plains. — Within 
recent years a large part of the eastern half of this belt 
has been converted into farms, and much of the native 
sod has been placed under cultivation. As modern methods 
for dry-farming come into more general use, and crops 
especially adapted to dry regions are more widely grown, 
more and more of the Great Plains will be utilized for the 
growing of crops. In the western part of the belt irriga- 
tion is practised in many places either by ditches from the 
larger rivers, as the Platte and Arkansas, or from deep 
wells by means of windmills or gasoline engines, or from 
ponds that catch the storm water. The forage crops 
adapted to this region are millet ( Par. 56 ) for the eastern 
half of the belt; brome-grass (Par 31) for the region from 
Nebraska to Montana and Minnesota; and the sorghums 
for the region from Kansas to Texas. Kafir is grown for 
grain and forage. It is usually planted in rows and culti- 
vated. Saccharine sorghums, such as the Amber and 
Orange varieties, are much grown for hay. For this purpose 
they are sown thickly and mowed with a machine. 

The grains grown for the seed over the eastern and 
central portion of the belt furnish also no inconsiderable 
amount of forage. It is a common practice in the winter 
wheat region to pasture the wheat fields in the fall and 
early winter. The most important forage crop is alfalfa. 



GRASS-CROP AREAS 83 

With proper care in preparation of the soil and in seeding, 
this leguminous crop can be grown without irrigation over 
a very considerable portion of the area. 

114. The arid region. — This includes all the region 
west of the Great Plains where the rainfall is insufficient 
for the growth of crops without the aid of irrigation. 
Besides the two main mountain systems, the Rocky 
Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, there are numerous 
smaller ranges throughout the region between. The term 
Great Basin strictly applies to that portion such as most 
of Utah and Nevada which has no drainage to the sea. 
This name is often applied in a loose way to the whole 
region between the two mountain systems mentioned. 
The general level of this interior region is at 4,000 to 5,000 
feet altitude. Usually at higher altitudes in the mountains 
the climate is increasingly moist. Above about 8,000 
feet the climate is usually humid and the slopes are in 
general more or less forested. 

The climate of the plains and valleys is arid. Crops 
are raised only as water for irrigation can be obtained from 
the streams. Much of the area is sufficiently arid to be 
called a desert. This is especially so in the southern part 
where the summers are longer. Under favorable conditions 
crops can be raised by applying the methods of dry-land 
farming. Such may be the case at the base of a mountain 
slope where there is sub-irrigation through seepage from 
the mountain. The great proportion of this arid region 
is used for stock-grazing in so far as it can be used at all 
for agricultural purposes. Most of the grazing is in the 
mountains but there is some forage on the desert which is 
utilized if water for stock is available (Par. 20). Where 
there is snow in winter, sheep can be pastured, the animals 
depending on the snow for their water-supply. 



84 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



115. The Pacific slope. — In the great interior valley 
of California and northward through eastern Oregon, 
eastern Washington and northern Idaho, the rainfall comes 
mostly in the winter, this season being comparatively 
mild. Under these conditions the winter season is adapted 
to the growth without irrigation of annual crops such as 
grain. The summers are hot and dry, and irrigation is 
necessary for summer crops such as alfalfa. The region 
to the northwest of this is humid (Par. 110). 

116. The relative importance of the different kinds 
of forage in the different regions of the United States. — 
The production (tons) of the kinds of forage mentioned by 
the thirteenth census report is given in the following 
table, each being arranged by states. The production of 
each kind of forage in the United States is shown in Figs. 
2 to 10. 



TABLE XVII 

The Production (Tons) of Hay and Forage for 1909, by the Ten 

Leading States, of Each Kind of Forage 



Timothy 



1. Ohio . . 

2. Iowa . . 

3. Illinois 

4. Indiana 

5. Missouri 



2,348,660 
1,952,956 
1,947,572 
1,442,218 
1,334,556 



10. 



Pennsylvania 
New York . 
Wisconsin 
Minnesota . 
Michigan 



1,200,073 
1,159,083 
1,110,446 
1,101,510 
929,165 



Timothy and clover mixed 

1. Iowa 3,732,186 6. Missouri 

2. New York .... 3,215,021 7. Minnesota 

3. Wisconsin 2,477,311 8. Ohio . . 

4. Michigan 1,991,618 9. Illinois . 

5. Pennsylvania . . . 1,830,852 10. Vermont 



1,630,211 
1,433,075 
1,346,347 
1,123,254 
628,098 



Clover alone 



1. Illinois 539,790 

2. Indiana 314,818 

3. Missouri 309,209 

4. Ohio 239,492 

6. Michigan 216,862 



6. Tennessee 201,926 

7. Iowa 195,579 

8. Wisconsin 193,786 

9. New York 114,864 

10. Minnesota 106.334 



GRASS-CROP AREAS 



85 



1. Kansas . 

2. California 

3. Nebraska 

4. Colorado 

5. Idaho . . 



Table XVII, continued 

Alfalfa 

1,998,689 6. Utah 791,355 

1,639,707 7. Montana 599,747 

1,522,136 8. Wyoming 397,669 

1,265,915 9. Oregon 375,445 

964,529 10. Washington .... 357,595 



Millet or Hungarian grass 



1. Kansas 290,661 

2. Nebraska 160,684 

3. North Dakota . . . 149,429 

4. Missouri 141,626 

5. Texas 95,352 



9. 

10. 



Tennessee 76,311 

Oklahoma 75,591 

South Dakota . . . 65,844 

Iowa 54,346 

Minnesota .... 50,383 



Other tame or cultivated grasses 



1. New York 412,479 6. 

2. Maine 258,789 7. 

3. Tennessee 218,482 8. 

4. Minnesota 188,371 9. 

5. Vermont 160,014 10. 



Connecticut .... 159,365 

Massachusetts . . . 150,723 

Kentucky 139,382 

Texas 138,758 

New Hampshire . . 131,621 



Wild, salt, or prairie grasses 



1. Nebraska . . 

2. South Dakota 

3. Minnesota 

4. North Dakota 

5. Kansas . . . 



3,097,822 
2,798,263 
2,714,121 
2,372,618 
1,737,632 



6. Iowa . . 

7. Oklahoma 

8. Montana 

9. Wisconsin 
10. Colorado 



1,178,000 
607,120 
589,860 
497,622 
368,408 



1. California . 

2. Oregon . . 

3. Wa.shington 

4. Idaho . . 

5. Tennessee . 



Grains cut green 

2,019,526 6. South Carolina . . 133,996 

509,030 7. Georgia 128,929 

499,955 8. Louisiana 127,126 

140,098 9. North Carolina . . . 118,687 

136,674 10. Illinois 99,828 



Coarse forage 



1. New York .... 1,876,795 6. 

2. Kansas 1,263,231 7. 

3. Texas 688,274 8. 

4. Wisconsin 571,441 9. 

5. Iowa 510,184 10. 



Vermont 452,461 

Ohio 443,512 

Pennsylvania . . . 422,925 

Minnesota 401,614 

Michigan 379,279 



117. Remarks on Table XVII. — In order to under- 
stand the classification of the forage plants in the census 
report, the following extract is quoted from '^Instruc- 



86 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

tions for Clerks in Tabulation Subdivision II, Agricul- 
ture," being a part of Inquiry 43, concerning hay and 
forage crops. 

(a) Tabulate as "clover alone" all crops reported after that 
designation, as well as all reported as "alsike," "red clover," "crimson 
clover;" also other clovers unmixed with other grasses. The same 
crops reported as mixed with timothy or herd's grass should be 
tabulated as "timothy and clover mixed." When reported as mixed 
with grasses other than timothy or herd's-grass, they should be 
tabulated as "other tame or cultivated grasses." 

(b) Tabulate as "other tame or cultivated grasses" all crops 
reported after that designation, as well as all reported as "red- 
top," "June-grass," "orchard-grass," "blue-grass," and "Johnson- 
grass;" also all combinations of these grasses with any of the clover 
crops mentioned in paragraph a, preceding, or with timothy. 

(c) Tabulate as "wild, salt, or prairie grasses" all crops reported 
after that designation, as well as all reported as "marsh-grass," 
"swamp-grass," "slough-grass," "bluestem," "daisies," and "butter- 
cups." 

(d) Tabulate as "grains cut green" all crops reported after that 
designation without specific names, or with the name "oats," 
"wheat," "barley," "rye," "peas," "cowpeas," "soybeans," "velvet- 
beans," or "vetches." Keep a memorandum of the names of all 
crops reported with specific names and tabulated as "grains cut 
green." 

(e) Tabulate as "coarse forage" all crops reported after that 
designation without specific names, or with the name "corn" (see 
paragraph i below), "sweet corn," "cane," "sorghum," "Kafir corn," 
"Jerusalem corn," "milo maize," or kindred crops. 

Timothy and clover, alone and mixed, constitute the 
first three items of the classification under hay and forage. 
These plants are grown in the humid region (Par. 110), 
though the New England states, with the exception of 
Vermont, are not represented. Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, New 
York, Wisconsin and Minnesota are represented in each 
of the lists of ten leading states for these forage plants. 



GRASS-CROP AREAS 87 

The leading alfalfa states are all west of the Missouri 
River, although it is note-worthy that the state of first 
rank, Kansas, lies on the eastern border of the region. 
With the exception of Tennessee, the leading millet 
states lie between the Mississippi River and the Rocky- 
Mountains. 

The states leading in the production of forage classi- 
fied as ''other tame or cultivated grasses'' are those of 
the New England division, together with the adjacent 
state of New York, and the more remote states of Minne- 
sota, Kentucky, Tennessee and Texas. In the north- 
eastern states the most important element is redtop. In 
Texas, as in other southern states, Johnson-grass is an 
important factor. In Tennessee and Kentucky orchard- 
grass is an important forage plant. The states leading in 
the production of wild hay, with the exception of Wis- 
consin, lie in the Great Plains region where the bulk of 
the product is made up of mixed prairie grasses. In Wis- 
consin an important factor is blue-joint {Calamagrostis 
canadensis). 

Most of the elements in the classification of hay and 
forage represent summer-grown crops. The category 
referred to as ''grains cut green" assumes importance in 
two regions, the Pacific coast and the southern states. In 
the first region the best conditions for grain-growing 
obtain in the winter season, during which the greatest 
rainfall of the year occurs. Because of these conditions 
hay made from grain is the most available forage. In the 
second region cowpea hay is an important crop. Canada 
field pea, an important crop along our northern border, 
is included in the figures for "grains cut green." Under 
the last heading, "coarse forage," are included corn and 
sorghum cut for forage. 



88 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

LIST OF GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS REFERRING TO FORAGE 
CROPS AND SPECIAL USES OF GRASSES 

The list is not complete but indicates the more impor- 
tant recent publications. The bulletins of the state 
experiment stations should also be consulted by the 
student. Another important series is that of the circulars 
and bulletins of the Division of Agrostology, United 
States Department of Agriculture. These bulletins are 
now out of print but the series can be consulted in the 
libraries of educational institutions. 

United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, 

Bulletins 

Nos. 

4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 

11. Johnson-Grass. 

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 

13. Experiments in Range Improvement in Central Texas. 

15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin. 

19. Kentucky Blue-Grass Seed. 

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 

38. Forage Conditions and Problems in Eastern Oregon. 

57. Methods Used for Controlling and Reclaiming Sand-Dunes. 

59. Pasture, Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebraska. 

65. Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand-Dunes. 

67. Range Investigations in Arizona. 

72. III. Extermination of Johnson-Grass. 

74. Prickly Pear and Other Cacti as Food for Stock. 

75. Range Management in the State of Washington. 
82. Grass Lands of the South Alaska Coast. 

84. The Seeds of the Blue-Grasses. 

94. Farm Practice with Forage Crops in Western Oregon. 
100. VI. Orchard-Grass. 

111. IV. Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Oklahoma. 
111. V. The Culture and Uses of Brome-Grass. 

117. Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures. 

118. Peruvian Alfalfa. 



GRASS-CROP AREAS 89 

124. The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop. 

127. The Improvement of Mountain Meadows. 

140. The Spineless Prickly Pears. 

169. Variegated Alfalfa. 

175. History and Distribution of Sorghum. 

177. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona. 

179. The Florida Velvet Bean. 

197. The Soybean. 

203. Importance and Improvement of the Grain Sorghums. 

209. Grimm Alfalfa. 

229. Agricultural Varieties of the Cowpea. 

237. Grain Sorghum Production in the San Antonio Region of 

Texas. 
253. The Kaoliangs: A New Group of Grain Sorghums. 
258. Some New Alfalfa Varieties for Pastures. 

Farmers' Bulletins 

Nos. 

72. Cattle Ranges of the Southwest. 
101. Millets. 
108. Saltbushes. 
139. Emmer. 

164. Rape as a Forage Crop. 
174. Broom-Corn. 
194. Alfalfa Seed. 

246. Saccharine Sorghums for Forage. 
248. The Lawn. 

260. Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities. 
271. Forage Crop Practices in Western Oregon and Western 

Washington. 
279. Method of Eradicating Johnson-Grass. 
288. Nonsaccharine Sorghums. 
292. Cost of Filling Silos. 
300. Some Important Grasses and Forage Plants of the Gulf Coast 

Region. 
312. A Successful Southern Hay Farm. 
318. Cowpeas. 

322. Milo as a Dry-Land Grain Crop. 

323. Clover Farming on Sandy Jack-Pine Lands of the North. 
331. Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Oklahoma. 



90 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

339. Alfalfa. 

361. Meadow Fescue. 

362. Conditions Affecting Value of Market Hay. 

372. Soybeans. 

373. Irrigation of Alfalfa. 

382. The Adulteration of Forage-Plant Seeds. 

402. Canada Blue-Grass. 

441. Lespedeza or Japan Clover. s 

448. Better Grain-Sorghum Crops. 

458. Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage. 

464. Eradication of Quack-Grass. 

466. Winter Emmer. 

485. Sweet Clover. 

494. Lawn Soils and Lawns. 

495. Alfalfa Seed Production. 

502. Timothy Production on Irrigated Land in Northwestern 
States 

508. Market Hay 

509. Forage Crops for Cotton Region. 
515. Vetches. 

529. Vetch-Growing in the Southern States 
550. Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop. 
552. Kafir as a Grain Crop. 
556. The Making and Feeding of Silage. 

578. The Making and Feeding of Silage. 

579. Crimson Clover: Utilization. 

Articles in the Yearbooks of the Department of Agriculture 

1894. Grasses as Sand- and Soil-Binders. 

1895. Canadian Field Peas. 

Forage Conditions of the Prairie Region. 
Grasses of Salt Marshes. 

1896. Timothy in the Prairie Region. 
Cowpeas. 

1897. Lawns and Lawn-Making. 
Leguminous Forage Crops. 

1898. Millets. 
Sand-Binding Grasses. 

Grass Seed and Its Impurities. 



GRASS-CROP AREAS 91 

1898. Forage Plants for Cultivation on Alkali Soils. 

1899. Succulent Forage for Farm and Dairy. 

1900. Our Native Pasture Plants. 

1901. Grazing in Forest Reserves. 
1906. Range Management. 

1908. Search for New Leguminous Farm Crops. 
1912. Some New Grasses for the South. 



PART II 
SYSTEMATIC AGROSTOLOGY 



CHAPTER XI 

MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 

Morphology treats of the form and structure of organs, 
especially as to their developmental relations. For exam- 
ple, morphological study indicates that a fundamental 
organ may develop into a foliage leaf, into a scale or bract, 
or into the parts of the flower. In order to understand the 
natural classification of plants, it is first necessary to be 
familiar with their morphology. To interpret and use 
descriptions, it is necessary to understand the terminology 
used in morphology. The subject will be considered 
under two heads, morphology of the vegetative organs 
and morphology of the floral organs. 

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GRASSES 

118. Grasses are included in the natural botanical 
family Poaceae or Gramineae. — They are usually distin- 
guished by having long narrow 2-ranked blades, clasping 
sheaths, small greenish flowers collected in a compact 
or open inflorescence. The flowers have no proper peri- 
anth nor floral envelopes, but consist of a pistil and 
usually 3 stamens inclosed between 2 small bracts. 
Further details will be given under the appropriate 
headings. 

There are a few other groups of plants that resemble 
grasses in general appearance. The natural order Poales, 
Graminales or Glumiflorae, includes the grasses and sedges 

(95) 



96 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

(Cyperaceae). Many sedges have grass-like blades, but 
differ in having 3-ranked leaves and in having flowers 
supported by a single bract. In rushes (Juncaceae) the 
essential organs of the flowers are surrounded by a small 
greenish 6-parted perianth, and the fruit consists of a 
capsule with several or many seeds. A few plants belong- 
ing to the lily family and other allied groups have grass- 
like blades, but the flowers possess a proper perianth that 
is sometimes greenish but often conspicuously colored. 
Familiar examples of plants belonging to the grass 
family are, blue-grass, timothy, redtop, wheat, rice and 
other grains, corn, sorghum, sugar-cane and bamboos. 

119. Gross anatomy. — It is assumed that the student 
is familiar with the fundamental distinction between the 
primary organs of the phanerogams. He may be reminded, 
only, that the plant consists of shoot and root, that the 
shoot consists of the stem and leaves borne upon it, and 
that the inflorescence consists of modified shoots. 

Grasses may be annual or perennial. In cooler regions 
certain annual species may germinate in the fall, live over 
winter as a small tuft and send up flower stalks the follow- 
ing spring. These are known as winter annuals. 

120. Perennial herbaceous species are mostly of two 
kinds. In the first kind a crown is formed by the per- 
sistent bases of the culms, the upper portions of which die 
back each year. The young shoots of the ensuing season 
are produced from buds arising within the sheaths They 
grow up alongside the old stems and together form a 
compact mass. Such grasses form tufts or tussocks and 
are commonly called bunch-grasses. The orchard-grass 
is a familiar example. Some authors refer to the shoots 
of bunch-grasses as being intravaginal. 

In the second kind of perennial, the new shoots arise 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 97 

from rhizomes or rootstocks. These are modified shoots 
that burst through the sheaths and creep horizontally 
below the surface of the soil. Grasses such as the blue- 
grass, with well-developed rhizomes, tend to form a com- 
pact sod. The young shoots or innovations of such grasses 
are sometimes referred to as extravaginal. The various 
forms assumed by rhizomes will be discussed under the 
subject of the stem. 

Besides these two chief kinds of perennial grasses, 
there are those (such as the buffalo -grass) that produce 
stolons by which a sod is formed. Still another method of 
persisting through unfavorable seasons is found in many 
grasses growing in the water or mud. The lower prostrate 
or decumbent portion branches freely and persists while 
the upper portion dies back. The older portion dies sooner 
or later so that the original base of the plant disappears 
and one finds only a tangled mass of creeping and root- 
ing stems. 

The stems of grasses vary in height from an inch or 
less to several feet in herbaceous species. Some of the 
larger bamboos arise to the height of over 100 feet and 
may be a foot in diameter. Certain climbing species 
clamber up through the branches of trees to the height 
of 30 feet or more. 

121. Distribution. — Grasses are found in all parts of 
the world where there is sufficient soil to permit growth. 
They are found from the tropics to the arctic regions, 
from sea-level up to the limits of perpetual snow. They 
are found in woods, plain, swamp and desert, on the floor 
of the deepest forest, on the sandy seashore, in moist 
gorges and on rocky cliffs. In the main, however, grasses 
love sunHght, and are found in greatest abundance in 
open land such as prairies and pine barrens. In mangrove 

6 



98 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

swamps grasses are rare and in thick forest only a few 
broad-bladed shade-loving species are found. 

The species of grasses are frequently gregarious, form- 
ing large masses more or less to the exclusion of other 
plants. Familiar examples are the large areas of Indian 
rice and of Phragmites in swamps, and the zones of 
Homalocenchrus oryzoides around ponds. On prairies and 
plains, grasses are usually the dominant vegetation, though 
the species may mingle more than in the swamp plants 
mentioned above. During the flowering period, a particu- 
lar species may appear to the casual observer to be the 
only species present, but close examination usually proves 
the presence of various other species, some of which may in 
their turn appear dominant at another period. 

THE ROOT AND STEM 

122. The roots of grasses are fibrous. They are usually 
found at the base of the plant, but in decumbent or pros- 
trate stems they may be produced at the nodes. Support- 
ing or prop roots are sometimes produced in erect stems 
at nodes above the surface of the soil as in Indian corn. 
Underground stems which may have the appearance of 
roots will be discussed in another paragraph. 

123. The stem of grasses, known as the culm, is made 
up of a series of nodes and internodes. The nodes are the 
more or less swollen joints at which the leaves originate. 
The internodes when young are solid, that is, filled with 
pith, but at maturity the pith usually disappears leaving 
the culm in the form of a tube with solid partitions at the 
nodes. The wheat straw is a familiar example of this 
structure. In some grasses, such as the corn and sorghum, 
the internodes retain the pithy interior. 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 99 

The nodes are capable of growth after the maturity 
of the internodes. By virtue of this character the culm is 
able to change its direction by bending at the nodes, the 
latter increasing in length on the outer side. This tendency 
may be observed in decumbent culms, the terminal por- 
tion remaining erect while the basal portion may become 
prostrate. In such cases the nodes first elongate on the 
under side and later on the upper side as the successive 
internodes become horizontal. The node is usually indi- 
cated externally by a more or less well-marked zone 
showing a difference in color, texture or pubescence. The 
swelling often present near the node is a part of the 
sheath and will be described in connection with that 
organ. 

In young shoots, the leaves grow at first much faster 
than the internodes, so that the terminal portion or bud 
consists of several sheaths fairly well developed, one within 
the other, while the corresponding internodes are very 
short. Later these internodes elongate rapidly, separating 
the leaves. By this means the youngest portion of the 
shoot is always well protected by the surrounding 
sheaths. 

The culms are usually cylindrical or nearly so, but may 
be distinctly flattened. They are never 3-angled as in 
sedges. The mature culm in proportion to its weight has 
great strength, especially to resist bending. This condi- 
tion is aided by the tubular shape and by the hard tissue 
of the walls. In addition to the sclerenchyma fibers, so 
abundantly produced as to form a solid ring of tissue with 
the vascular bundles, there is usually deposited a con- 
siderable quantity of silica. 

124. Duration. — The culms of most grasses are herba- 
ceous and die down at least to the surface of the soil. In 



100 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

bamboos and a few other groups (such as Lasiacis and 
Arundo) the culms are woody and persist many years. 
Transitional forms are not uncommon, especially in desert 
regions where the base of the culms becomes perennial, 
the new shoots arising from this more or less elongated 
and woody portion. 

125. Stems modified for prbpagation. — The usual 
form of propagating stem is the rhizome or rootstock 
(Fig. 58). Rhizomes are creeping underground stems 
that may be distinguished from roots by the presence 
of reduced leaves in the form of scales. The terminal bud 
is hard and sharp so that the rhizome is able to force its 
way through the soil. Rhizomes vary greatly in size and 
consistency, being slender or almost thread-like in some 
species and thick and firm in others, but are rarely suc- 
culent enough to be called fleshy. From the rhizomes are 
sent up the vertical shoots, sometimes a single shoot the 
following season, sometimes several during the same 
season. 

In sandy soil, especially on sand-dunes, the system of 
rhizomes reaches its greatest development. Beach-grass 
(Ammophila) and species, of Spartina (such as S. juncea) 
produce a branching network, a single element of which 
may be many feet in length. Under favorable circum- 
stances of isolation, a vigorous rhizome may be traced a 
long distance by the line of vertical shoots produced. 
Swamp-grasses are usually provided with a well-developed 
rhizome system, by which they may form a layer over 
soft mud or even upon the surface of water. 

Grasses that grow in ordinary alluvial soil and that 
produce copious slender rhizomes form a firm sod and are 
useful for lawns. 

Examples: Blue-grass and Bermuda-grass. 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 101 

Between species with well-marked rhizomes such as 
described above and species in which the rhizomes are 
absent there are many transitions. The rhizomes may be 
short and thick with the scales close together, the plants 
forming loose tufts. Or the rhizomes may be slender but 
short and ascending, the plants also forming loose tufts. 
In certain species, usually classed as bunch-grasses, in 
which the tuft grows by accretions at the outer edge, the 
new shoots must bend outward and upward to reach the 
light. In large tufts the outer shoots have decumbent 
bases which may simulate short rhizomes. In some 
cases, especially in desert regions, such tufts may assume 
the form of fairy rings, dying out at the center and expand- 
ing at the circumference, until finally the living zone 
breaks up into isolated tufts, each to become a new center 
of growth. 

126. Stolons. — When the modified propagating stems 
are produced above the surface of the soil they are called 
stolons or runners. They differ also from rhizomes in that 
they bear foliage-leaves instead of scales, although these 
leaves are usually different in size or shape from those 
produced upon the foliage-shoots. Stolons are to be dis- 
tinguished from shoots of creeping prostrate or decumbent 
plants in that they are modified creeping stems, that 
is, they differ from the ordinary erect or ascending shoots 
of the same plant and have the distinct function of 
propagation. The buffalo-grass produces stolons so abun- 
dantly that the plant forms a firm sod upon large areas of 
the Great Plains (Fig. 48). It was from such sod that 
pioneers in this region made their sod houses. In the 
tropics stolon-producing species are more numerous than 
in the cooler regions. Para-grass^ when growing in new 
soil, produces vigorous stolons ^ much as 20 feet long. 



102 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

The common carpet-grass of our southern states produces 
strong stolons which, on overhanging banks or in other 
favorable situations, may reach a length of several feet. 
Some species produce rhizomes or stolons according to 
the conditions under which they are growing. Bermuda- 
grass forms strong rhizomes several inches below the sur- 
face in cultivated soil but in hard uncultivated soil pro- 
duces stolons, and not infrequently both may be found 
in the same mass of sod. 

127. Corms. — Another and rarer form of modified 
underground stem is the corm. This is a hard globular 
thickening at the base of the plant. In Panicum bulbosum, 
a grass found in the mountain valleys of New Mexico 
and Arizona, these corms are well marked, sometimes as 
much as an inch in diameter, and may occur in groups of 
several attached in one mass. Rudimentary corms are 
found at the base of the stems of timothy, Cinna and 
many species of Melica. A variety of the tall oat-grass 
produces corms in moniliform strings. The corms are 
produced by the thickening of a single internode. If 
there is more than one corm on the same shoot the con- 
striction between is the node. In Melica the thickening 
is greatest at the base of the internode resulting in a flask- 
shaped corm. Buds arise not on the corms but at the con- 
strictions, as these are the nodes. The masses of corms 
mentioned as being found in Panicum bulbosum include 
together with the living corms persistent old corms at 
the base of the stems of previous years' growth, these 
being connected by short rhizomes. 

128. Artificial propagation by means of stems. — Sugar- 
cane is propagated by planting pieces of the stems or canes, 
the buds at the nodes developing into shoot^. Para-grass 
and Bermuda-grass are propagated by planting pieces of 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 103 

the stolons or rhizomes. A common method in case of the 
latter grass is to cut sod into small pieces by means of an 
ax or a feed-cutter and to drop these upon prepared ground, 
forcing them in by pressure of the foot. Or, so readily do 
these pieces of stems grow, they may be sown broadcast 
and harrowed in or pressed in with a roller. 

THE LEA.F 

129. The leaf is a lateral organ of the stem borne 
singly at the nodes. A normally developed foliage-leaf 
consists of two parts, the sheath and the blade. The 
sheath envelopes the culm above the node; the blade is 
the long narrow flat portion to which the name leaf is 
often applied. At the junction of the sheath and blade 
is found an appendage called the ligule. 

Leaves are arranged on the culm alternately, in two 
ranks or rows. That is, the blade of a leaf at one node is 
on the side opposite the one below, while the third blade 
is above the first and on the same side of the culm. This 
universal arrangement, easy to observe in corn, is often 
obscured by the twisting of the culm or sheaths, by which 
the leaves may appear to be more or less in one rank or 
to be spirally arranged. 

When the internodes of a shoot have failed to elongate 
so that the leaves remain in a tuft or fascicle, the actual 
distichous arrangement of the leaves is distorted by the 
mutual pressure of these organs, by which they may 
appear to radiate in all directions. 

Leaves may be reduced to scales or bracts. Reduced 
leaves that appear on a shoot below the foliage-leaves are 
called scales. Those that appear above the foliage-leaves 
are called bracts. 



104 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

130. Leaf-base and blade. — As regards development, 
the leaves of flowering plants consist of two portions — 
the leaf-base and the blade. The leaf-base is prominent 
in the early development of the organ, but generally 
includes only a small portion of the mature leaf. In the 
leaves of common deciduous forest trees, the swollen 
portion at the base of the petiole represents the leaf-base. 
In reduced leaves, the leaf -base often includes a relatively 
greater portion or may even be the only portion developed. 
In grasses, the sheath represents the leaf-base. In scales 
and bracts, the blades have failed to develop or consist 
of a mere tip or point. 

131. The prophyllum. — At the point where a branch 
shoot originates from a main shoot, there is produced on 
the side next to the parent shoot a 2-keeled organ called 
the prophyllum. Through pressure the back of the 
prophyllum between the keels is concave against the 
parent shoot, while the two lateral portions, outside the 
keels, bend forward clasping the new shoot. At first the 
prophyllum completely covers the young shoot or bud, 
but later is spread or opened as the shoot develops. 

The various subdivisions of the leaf will now be dis- 
cussed more in detail. 

132. The sheath is the lower portion of the leaf that 
encircles the culm above the node from which it arises. 
From the developmental standpoint it represents the 
leaf-base. The sheath is usually open from the base on the 
side opposite the blade, the right and left margins of suc- 
cessive sheaths overlapping alternately. 

The sheath usually fits close to the stem but may be 
loose or inflated, especially the uppermost. The old sheaths 
at the base of the shoots may persist in perennial grasses 
and assume a characteristic appearance. 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 105 

The uppermost sheath of Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray 
and alHed species becomes inflated and spathe-like, more or less 
inclosing the inflorescence. The spathe-like sheaths are conspicuous 
in Andropogon Elliottii Chapm. Certain water-grasses, notably Pas- 
palum repens Berg., have inflated sheaths that act as floats to sus- 
tain the stems on the surface of the water. In some grasses, especi- 
ally those of dry regions, the dead sheaths persist as separated fibers 
or as a network of fibers. In other species such as Muhlenbergia 
gracilis (H. B. K.) Kunth and more conspicuously in M. straminea 
Hitchc, the sheaths become flat and ribbon-like and persist as a 
curly mass resembhng shavings, simulating old blades. 

In some species the sheaths are united by the margins 
to form a tube nearly or quite to the top. 

Examples: Bromus, Danthonia, Festuca, Mehca, Panicularia. 

Though the sheaths normally encircle the culm, a 
spreading branch may pull the subtending sheath away 
from the culm, in which case the sheath usually encircles 
the branch. 

133. Sheath nodes. — Many grasses present at the 
base of the sheath a distinct swelling which at first sight 
appears to be the node of the culm. If this portion of the 
stem is split open longitudinally it is readily seen that 
the prominent swelling is on the sheath and that the stem 
node is just below as will be indicated by the cross parti- 
tion. The sheath-node is often differentiated also by its 
color or pubescence. 

134. The collar. — At the junction of the sheath and 
blade there is in nearly all grasses a distinct line of demar- 
kation. On the inside is the ligule (Par. 135). On the out- 
side or back is a line, zone or ridge which is differentiated 
in color, texture, markings or pubescence. Thi*- zone is 
called the collar. 

135. The ligule is an appendage on the inside of a 



106 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

grass leaf at the junction of the sheath and blade. The 
usual form of the ligule is a membrane extending across 
the top of the sheath at first tightly clasping the culm, the 
membrane being longest in the middle portion. The shape 
and appearance of the ligule are characteristic of each 
species and are often used for taxonomic purposes. 

The ligule may be truncate or even somewhat concave on the 
upper margin. It is nerveless but may be 1-keeled (Dadylis glom- 
erata) or apparently 2-keeled by the extension upward of the base 
of the blade on each side. Not infrequently the ligular tissue extends 
down the margins of the sheath. Sometimes the ligule is lacerate or 
ciliate, or may appear as a row of hairs (Panicum Lindheimeri Nash 
and its allies) . The ligule is obsolete in some species (Panicum sphaero- 
carpon Ell.) and entirely absent in others (Echinochloa crus- 
galli (L.) Beauv.) In Anthochloa colusana (Davy) Scribn. there is 
no differentiation into sheath and blade, hence no coUar or ligule. 
The exact morphology of these leaves has not been investigated. It 
may be the sheath that is obsolete. 

136. The blade is the usually flat part of the leaf 
beyond the sheath and is the chief foliage organ of the 
plant. In most grasses the blade is many times longer 
than wide but in many tropical species and in a few of the 
temperate regions it is short and broad, from oval to 
lanceolate in outline (see Fig. 29). Grasses with this kind 
of blade are mostly confined to the damp forest regions 
of the tropics. 

In such grasses the shoots are often strongly dorsiventral, the 
blades being turned into the plane of the culm, and the shoots 
usually prostrate, procumbent or ascending. The genera Oplismenus, 
Ichnanthus, Senites, Pharus and many species of Panicum (as P. 
trichoides) furnish familiar examples of species with broad short 
blades that are found on the floor of tropical forests. These blades 
often resemble those of other families of plants, especially Commely- 
naceae. The bamboos and the bamboo-panicums (Lasiacis) usually 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 107 

have broad, comparatively short blades. In some cases the broad 
blades are unsymmetrical, one side being much wider than the 
other. These oblique blades are common in Olyreae. 

In contrast to the broad surface mentioned above, the 
blades may be very narrow, when they are said to be 
fihform or capillary. Often the blades are rolled, thus 
appearing much narrower than they are when unrolled. 

Convolute blades are those in which one margin is rolled over 
the other. Involute blades are those in which both margins are 
rolled inward toward the center, the upper surface being inside. 
Revolute blades are those in which the margins are rolled outward, 
the lower surface being inside. Conduplicate blades are folded so 
that the upper surface of the two halves come in contact as in Poa 
Fendleriana and its allies. In common blue-grass one may observe 
all gradations between flat and completely conduplicate blades. 
Certain blades that appear to be rolled may be thickened into a 
slender terete or cylindrical form, the upper surface being repre- 
sented by a mere groove (forms of Festuca ovina, Andropogon 
Urhanianus) . 

Petiole. — In some leaves especially those of shade 
grasses mentioned above, there is a more or less well- 
marked petiole at the base of the blade. 

Examples: Orthoclada, Senites, Ichnanthus, many bamboos. 

137. Nervation. — The vascular system of the grass 
blade consists of a strong main central axis, the midrib, 
and few to several smaller bundles called nerves, on each 
side parallel to the midrib. These nerves are continua- 
tions of corresponding nerves in the sheaths and they can 
usually be traced with the naked eye through the region 
of the collar. The anastomosing bundles, or cross-veins, 
are usually indistinguishable to the unaided eye. The 
broad blades of shade grasses (except Pharus and Lep- 



108 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

taspis) present arcuate nerves diverging at the base and 
converging at the apex, with numerous often conspicuous 
cross-veins, thus simulating the so-called netted-veined 
blades of dicotyledons. 

Besides the various genera already mentioned as having broad 
blades are the following which also present well-marked cross- veins: 
01yre2e, Centhotheca, Senites, Orthoclada, Pariana, many bamboos, 
and a few other genera. Pharus differs in having straight parallel 
lateral nerves that diverge from the midrib nearly throughout its 
length and join with a strong marginal nerve, instead of converging 
at the apex (Fig. 29). Leptaspis resembles Pharus, but Strepto- 
chseta is intermediate. 

138. Auricles. — Some grasses bear, one on either side at 
the base of the blade, appendages known as auricles. 
These auricles are characteristic of the tribe Hordese and 
are found in certain species of other tribes. 

Wheat, rye and barley show prominent auricles. Rice and 
Festuca elatior and its allies are examples outside the Hordese. A 
very unusual development of the blade is shown in Phyllorachis 
sagittata Trim, and Spodio'pogon sagittifolius Rendle. The base of 
the blade is extended into a long lobe on either side of the short 
petiole. 

139. Roll-leaves. — In a preceding paragraph (Par. 
136), casual mention was made of blades in which, by 
rolling in various ways, the exposed surface is reduced. 
This rolling of the blade is a xerophytic character and 
tends, by reduction of the evaporating surface, to lessen 
the loss of moisture. Such reduction of surface is charac- 
teristic of grasses of plains and desert regions, of sandy soil, 
especially along the seacoast, and of saHne marshes. In 
some cases the blades are permanently rolled, in other 
cases they are flat under favorable conditions of atmos- 
pheric moisture but readily roll when the moisture 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 109 

decreases. This rolling is a normal protective process and 
should not be confused with wilting. The blades of roll- 
leaves are marked on one or both surfaces with parallel 
channels and ridges, the latter being the nerves. The 
tissues of the ridges are firm and resistant while the cells 
of the channels are larger and thin-walled. These large 
cells, called bulliform cells, readily give off moisture. 
When the air is moist they remain turgescent, thus push- 
ing the ridges apart and holding the surface flat or at 
least partly open. As the air growls drier the bulliform 
cells become flaccid and the blade closes or rolls. To 
further aid the blades of xerophytic grasses to resist too 
great a loss of water, the stomata are usually arranged 
along the sides of the channels and are not exposed when 
the blade rolls. 

Examples of roll-leaves are forms of Festuca ovina and species of 
Stipa and Spartina. 

SCALES AND BRACTS 

140. Scales are the reduced leaves found upon shoots 
below the foliage-leaves. They may be observed near 
the base of shoots of all perennial grasses, occupying gen- 
erally the portion below the surface of the soil and often 
a portion for a short distance above the soil. These scales, 
by overlapping above the growing point as a bud, protect 
the shoot as it pushes through the ground. Usually there 
is a gradual transition from scales to foliage-leaves, but 
sometimes the change is abrupt. In large grasses such as 
Gynerium sagittatum, the portion of the culm occupied by 
scales is much greater and may extend several feet above 
the surface of the soil. Bamboos, especially the vigorous 
shoots of the large species, furnish excellent examples of 



110 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

scales. These throw up a culm several inches in thickness, 
covered with large scales, and grow many feet in height 
before they develop foliage-branches. In perennial 
stemmed bamboos may be observed scales also upon the 
lower portion of branches. These scales often show transi- 
tions to foliage-leaves, the upper bearing rudimentary 
blades. 

Scales are always produced upon rhizomes. Their 
chief function appears to be that of protection to the 
growing point as the rhizome is forced through the soil. 
The scales develop rapidly in the form of a bud at the end, 
overlapping and sharp-pointed. The terminal portion 
of some vigorous rhizomes is as hard as wood and as sharp 
as an awl. By the elongation of the internodes, the scales 
behind the growing point are separated and may become 
lacerated or otherwise lose their original shape. 

141. Bracts are reduced leaves that are borne on shoots 
above the foliage-leaves. They may be discussed under 
two heads, those that are in or near the inflorescence, 
and those that are specially modified in the spikelet. The 
latter will be considered in a future paragraph dealing 
with the spikelet. 

Among flowering plants in general, bracts are usually 
found subtending each branch of the inflorescence down 
to the individual flower. In grasses these bracts are rarely 
present. In large panicles, as in some species of Bromus, 
the lower branches may be subtended by small bracts or 
there is at least a ridge representing a bract. Sheathing 
bracts are found in various genera, especially among 
Andropogonese, at the base of the entire inflorescence or 
of certain portions of it. In some grasses, the uppermost 
leaf below the inflorescence may have a much-reduced 
blade, for example many species of Poa, but such leaves 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 111 

are usually classed with the foliage-leaves rather than with 
bracts. A peculiarly specialized bract is found at the base 
of the individual inflorescence of Job's tears (Par. 203). 
It is urn-shaped, bony, and incloses the pistillate inflores- 
cence. At maturity it breaks away as a bead-like 
1-seeded fruit. 



CHAPTER XII 

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 

The floral organs of phanerogams are known to be 
highly differentiated or specialized shoots, the receptacle 
representing a stem, and the stamens and pistils repre- 
senting greatly modified leaves. In the grasses the 
flowers are nearly always devoid of floral envelopes, the 
calyx and corolla being absent or represented only by the 
lodicules. The flower then is reduced to the essential 
organs, the stamens and pistil, the protection usually 
afforded by the floral envelopes being here afforded 
by bracts. 

THE INFLORESCENCE OR FLOWER-CLUSTER 

142. The flowers of grasses are usually segregated 
upon distinct shoots that are easily distinguished from the 
foUage-shoots or the foliage portion of a shoot. These 
aggregations of flowers constitute the inflorescence. 

An inflorescence is always terminal upon the shoot, and 
commonly these shoots are the main foliage-shoots of the 
plant, as in wheat, blue-grass, timothy and sorghum. In 
addition to the inflorescence terminating the main culm 
and leafy branches, others may arise from the axils of the 
leaves. Such lateral inflorescences are, of course, terminal 
upon lateral branches, but since such branches bear no 
foliage-leaves the inflorescences are said to be lateral or 
axillary. In some grasses such as bamboos, bamboo- 
panicums, and less commonly in herbaceous genera, the 

(112) 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 113 

culms produce foliage-branches some or all of which may 
end in an inflorescence. 

The unit of the inflorescence is the spikelet, which 
consists of one or more flowers with the subtending floral 
bracts. The common forms of inflorescence are the spike, 
the raceme and the panicle. 

143. Kinds of inflorescence. — The spike. — The spike- 
lets are sessile along an elongated axis. Familiar examples 
of this form are the members of the tribe Hordese, as 
wheat and rye (Figs. 57-62). 

The raceme. — The spikelets are pedicelcd and borne 
along an elongated axis. Simple forms of meadow fescue 
and sheep's fescue show racemes. The individual inflo- 
rescence of Paspalum is apparently a spike, but really a 
spike-like raceme. 

The panicle. — The spikelets are pediceled and the 
inflorescence is repeatedly branched. The oat- and blue- 
grass are famihar examples (Fig. 54). 

Mixed inflorescences. — True spikes, except in the Hor- 
des, are rare, as is also the simple raceme. An inflores- 
cence that is apparently a spike often shows that the 
spikelets are not sessile but more or less pediceled. Such 
an inflorescence is properly a spike-like raceme. Similarly 
a panicle may be so contracted that the pedicels and short 
branches are hidden and the inflorescence appears to be 
a spike, but in precise language should be called a spike- 
like panicle (Fig. 38). 

The component parts of the inflorescences of the genera Pas- 
palum and Syntherisma (e.g., crab-grass) are spike-like racemes. 
The so-called spikes or heads of timothy and canary-grass are spike- 
like panicles. 

In the genus Andropogon what appears to be a spike consists 
of a jointed axis, each joint bearing a pair of spikelets, one sessile 
H 



114 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

the other pedicc-led. The inflorescence is therefore generally re- 
ferred to as a raceme or as composed of racemes (Fig. 16). 

Simple racemes with elongated pedicels are not common. 
Simple panicles in which the spikelets are racemosely arranged 
above and more or less paniculate below are frequent. The meadow 
fescue and other fescue grasses usually bear this kind of an inflor- 
escence. 

Compound inflorescence. — This term has received no 
very precise application. It is usually applied to a large 
inflorescence made up of numerous smaller inflorescences, 
especially if the latter have their distinctness emphasized 
by sheathing bracts as in Cymbopogon Nardus and many 
other Andropogonese. 

144. Unisexual inflorescences. — The spikelets that 
make up an inflorescence are usually alike, and consist 
of perfect flowers. But sometimes the spikelets are uni- 
sexual, the male and female spikelets being in distinct 
and usually dissimilar inflorescences. There are a few 
dioecious genera such as Spinifex, Bulbilis, Scleropogon, 
Gynerium and Jouvea. In these the inflorescence of the 
staminate plants is very different in appearance from that 
of the pistillate plants. Sometimes the difference is so 
great that the different forms might easily be considered 
by the casual observer to belong to distinct species or 
even to distinct genera. There are cases where the two 
forms have been described by botanists as belonging to 
distinct genera. In the common buffalo-grass of the 
plains the staminate inflorescence consists of 1 to 3 one- 
sided spikes raised on a peduncle a few inches long (Fig. 
48), while the pistillate inflorescence is hidden among the 
foliage close to the surface of the ground (Fig. 49). Some- 
times (e.g. Distichlis) the staminate and pistillate inflores- 
cences are similar though not alike (Fig. 52). 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 115 

Fournier described the genus Jouvea from pistillate specimens. 
Staminate plants of the same species (J. straminea Fourn.) he re- 
ferred to Brizopyrum. The staminate specimens of Jouvea pilosa 
(Presl) Scribn. were first described under Brizopyrum. The stam- 
inate plants of Bulbilis dactyloides were first described under Sesleria. 

145. Monoecious genera, in which the staminate and 
pistillate flowers are borne in distinct and dissimilar por- 
tions of the inflorescence, are not common. These include 
Tripsacum, Olyra, Zizania, and a few related genera. In 
Tripsacum the staminate flowers occupy the terminal 
portion of the spikes. In Olyra and Zizania (Fig. 31) the 
staminate flowers are in the lower part of a panicle. In a 
very few genera, the staminate and pistillate inflores- 
cences occupy different parts of the same plant. Zea and 
Euchlsena belong to this group. The tassel of the corn is 
the staminate inflorescence; the ear is the pistillate 
inflorescence. Not a few grasses, as many Andropogonese, 
produce unisexual spikelets that are interspersed with 
perfect spikelets, usually in some definite relation, but all 
in the same inflorescence (Fig. 16). 

146. The axis of inflorescence. — The usual form is 
slender and cylindrical, but it may take on a variety of 
other shapes. In the spike of Hordeae, the axis is somewhat 
zig-zag by the alternate insertion of the large spikelets at 
the nodes. The internodes or joints are flattened or con- 
cave toward the spikelet and convex on the opposite side. 
In many Hordeae the axis disarticulates at the nodes at 
maturity. Such disarticulation often occurs also in other 
groups, especially among the Andropogoneae. The axis is 
sometimes greatly thickened and the surface hollowed 
out, the spikelets fitting into the cavities. Such is the 
case in Tripsacum, Manisuris and several other genera of 
these tribes, and also in Stenotaphrum (Fig. 28). In the 



116 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

latter, however, the inflorescence is really branched, 
shortened branchlets with 2 spikelets being borne in each 
of the cavities of the axis. Sometimes, as in Tripsacum 
and Euchlaena (Fig. 11), the axis disarticulates and the 
1-seeded joints become hard bead-like fruits. The cob of 
an ear of corn is a greatly thickened axis of inflorescence, 
the structure of which is discussed in Par. 202. 

The spikes and spike-like racemes of Chlorideae and of 
many Paniceae are 1 -sided. Here the axis has developed 
so unsymmetrically that the 2 rows of spikelets have been 
forced to one side. The axis may appear thin and much 
flattened as in many species of Paspalum (e. g., P. repens 
and P. stellatum) or somewhat triangular with a row of 
spikelets on each of 2 sides, as in crab-grass. 

The name rachis is usually applied to the axis of spikes, 
and spike-like racemes or panicles, or to the axis of any 
contracted inflorescence or portion of an inflorescence. 

147. Branching of panicles. — The main branches of a 
panicle are known as the primary branches. Those which 
arise from these are secondary branches and this name 
may be apphed to branches of the third or higher order. 
The ultimate branches or branchlets which are the stalks 
of the individual spikelets are the pedicels and will be 
considered when the structure of the spikelet is discussed. 
The primary branches of a panicle often appear to be 
verticillate or at least more than one from a node. It 
will be observed however that in many cases there is 1 
primary branch and that the others are secondary branches 
developed at the base of a primary branch. If the verticils 
are composed of primary branches the aggregation is 
due to the failure of the internodes to elongate. 

If the several branches originating at one node all stand at 
one side of the main axis and those at the next node stand on the 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 117 

opposite side, it indicates that there is 1 primary branch and the 
others are basal secondary or even tertiary branches. Blue-grass 
and cultivated oat illustrate this. The former normally has 5 
branches at the lower node of the inflorescence, one of which, the 
longer central one, is a primary branch, the others being branches 
of higher order. 

148. Motor organs. — In the axils of the primary 
branches of open or spreading panicles, and often in the 
axils of some of the secondary branches, are to be found 
swellings or cushions of tissue. These are motor organs 
whose function is to spread the branches of the panicle at 
the proper time. This opening takes place when the 
spikelets on the branch have reached the stage of anthesis, 
and progresses from above downward, the branches at 
the base being the last to develop and open. The move- 
ment is brought about by an increase in size due to tur- 
gidity thereby spreading the branch. Usually these motor 
organs act only during anthesis and then harden, but some- 
times by losing their turgidity they later bring about a 
contraction of the panicle, as in Dadylis glomerata (Fig. 
53) and Agrostis alba. 

Occasionally the ultimate branches of the inflorescence 
do not end in a spikelet. Such branches are known as 
sterile branches. The bristles conspicuous in the spike- 
like panicles of Chaetochloa are sterile branchlets. 

THE SPIKELET 

149. The spikelets are the units of the inflorescence 
and are borne upon its ultimate branches, the stalks being 
called the pedicels. The spikelet consists of a short axis 
bearing 1 or more flowers in the axils of 2-ranked imbri- 
cated bracts. As an example of a typical spikelet, that 



118 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

of Eragrostis cilianensis (E. megastachya) may be consid- 
ered (Fig. 51). The lower pair of bracts are empty and 
are called glumes. The lower is the first glume; the upper 
the second glume. The midnerve is the keel. The bracts 
above the glumes are regularly arranged on a slender 
axis or rachilla, alternately in 2 ranks. These are called 
lemmas. In the axil of each lemma, except 1 or more of 
the reduced uppermost, there is a flower, and between the 
flower and the axis a second smaller bract called the palea. 
The lemmas are also keeled and have a pair of lateral 
nerves. The palea is 2-keeled, and is inclosed within the 
margins of the lemma. The lemma and palea together 
with the inclosed sexual organs are called the floret. 

The spikelet may be interpreted as a specialized 
branch, bearing a series of bracts, or modified leaves, the 
lower pair (glumes) being empty, the others (lemmas) 
bearing a much specialized branchlet (the flower) in the 
axil, the palea being the prophyllum. 

The terminology here adopted differs somewhat from that in 
common use in early works on agrostology. The terms with which 
the student is more likely to come in contact are: For glume, the 
terms empty glume and empty scale; for lemma, the terms flowering 
glume, flowering scale and lower palea or palet; for palea the altered 
spelling palet. The objection to the term scale is that this name is 
applied only to modified leaves on a shoot below the foliage-leaves. 
The modified leaves of the spikelet are, then, to be included under 
the general designation, bracts. It seems desirable, however, that 
special terms be adopted for these parts as they are so often used. 
In this the writer is following the leading contemporary works on 
plant morphology. Again, for the sake of brevity and precision, 
there is a distinct advantage in using separate terms for the bracts 
containing flowers, and for the empty pair at the base of the spikelet. 
Morphologically the glumes and lemmas are equivalent, and hence 
the terms empty glume and flowering glume are entirely proper. 
But the constant difference in relation and function justifies the 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 119 

greater distinction of the terms employed for them and the re- 
duction of these terms to a single word. The term lemma was first 
used by C. V. Piper.* 

Linnaeus called the glumes the calyx, and the lemma and palea 
the corolla, to coordinate the terms with those used in other groups 
of plants. The individual glumes, lemmas and paleas he called 
valves. He speaks of the calyx of Panicum as being 1-flowered and 
3-valved; of the corolla as being 2-valved; the calyx of Phleum is 
1-flowered and 2-valved; the calyx of Poa is 2-valved but contains 
many flowers; the calyx of Uniola is 6-valved (referring to the 
several empty bracts at the base of the spikelet) and contains many 
flowers. 

According to Kunth, the spikelet of Sporobolus consists of 2 
glumes and 2 paleas; Panicum of 2 glumes, a lower masculine or 
neutral flower with 1 or 2 paleas and an upper perfect flower with 
2 paleas. 

Gray (Man., ed. 5) uses the same terminology as Kunth. 
Watson (Gray, Man., ed. 6) uses the terms empty glumes and 
flowering glumes. 

Bentham (Benth. & Hook. Gen. PI.) calls all the bracts of the 
spikelet glumes and applies the term palea properly. If the glume 
incloses a flower it is a flowering glume, otherwise an empty glume. 
Hence the spikelet of Sporobolus is said to have 3 glumes, 2 empty 
and 1 flowering; of Panicum to have 4 glumes, the fourth and some- 
times the third a flowering glume. 

Stapf. (Fl. Cap.) uses the terms glumes; valves for lemmas, and 
pales for paleas. 

The spikelet described above may be considered 
typical and represents the usual structure in the tribe 
Festucese. There are many departures from this type 
form, however. The glumes may be 1 or none; the flowers 
in the spikelet may be reduced to 1 or to 1 perfect flower 
with additional staminate or sterile flowers above or 
below; the glumes or lemmas may be modified in various 
ways; or the whole spikelet may be sterile. These modi- 

*CoBtr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 10: 8. March 30, 1906. 
Science, N.S. 23: 790. May 18, 1906. 



120 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

fications will be discussed in detail later. Unisexual 
spikelets have been mentioned under Par. 144. 

150. Sterile spikelets. — Sterile spikelets are those 
which differ from the spikelets with which they are 
associated, in lacking sexual organs. For convenience 
the term is sometimes made to include spikelets that con- 
tain stamens, when such spikelets are the equivalents of the 
sterile ones. In Andropogon the spikelets are in pairs, a 
sessile fertile one and a second pediceled one, which 
in different species may be staminate, empty or reduced 
to the pedicel (Fig. 16). This second or pediceled spike- 
let is generally referred to as the sterile spikelet. In some 
genera in other tribes sterile spikelets occur, usually in a 
definite relation to the fertile ones. These sterile spike- 
lets are prominent in Achyrodes and Cynosurus. In 
Hordeum the spikelets are in clusters of 3, but usually 
the 2 lateral are sterile. In Phalaris paradoxa the spike- 
lets are in groups of 7 of which 6 are sterile. Sterile spike- 
lets (when lacking stamens) are sometimes called neuter 
or neutral spikelets. Staminate spikelets, except those 
referred to above which have a definite position and are 
the equivalents of neuter spikelets, should not be called 
sterile spikelets. 

151. The pedicel is the stalk of the individual spikelet 
and represents the ultimate branching of the inflorescence. 
If the pedicel is so short that it is not evident the spike- 
let is said to be sessile. On the other hand the pedicels 
may be elongated and extremely slender as in Orthoclada. 
Sometimes they are slender and nodding, so that the 
spikelets vibrate or tremble in the breeze, as in Briza 
media, the quaking-grass. The pedicel may be jointed 
below the spikelet, in which case the spikelet disarticu- 
lates from the pedicel at maturity. This is true of most of 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 121 

tribe Panicese. In the series Poseoidese the pedicel is 
usually not jointed below the spikelet but the rachilla 
may be articulated below the first lemma, so that at 
maturity the upper part of the spikelet falls away leaving 
the glumes. There are exceptions in both groups. In 
many species of Eragrostis the rachilla remains attached 
to the pedicel and the lemmas fall away. 

The pedicel is sometimes differently developed in 
the same inflorescence, as in many Andropogonese, where 
the spikelets are in pairs, one being sessile and fertile, 
the other pediceled and bearing a staminate spikelet or 
only a bract which may represent a glume, or the spikelet 
may be aborted, the pedicel persisting as a naked stalk. 

The pedicel may be grown fast to the axis as in Rytilix 
and Manisuris. 

152. The glumes are the 2 empty bracts at the base of 
the spikelet and are called respectively the first and 
second glume. They usually differ in shape, nervation or 
texture or in other particulars from the lemmas above 
them. Frequently the first glume is smaller than the 
second and often has fewer nerves. Sometimes this 
reduction goes so far that the first glume is only a vestige 
or it may be altogether wanting. Syntherisma shows 
various stages in the elimination of the first glume, and 
in Paspalum the first glume is generally absent or repre- 
sented by a slight ridge. However there are species of 
Paspalum in which the first glume may be present or 
absent in the same raceme (P. distichum, Paspalum § 
Dimorphostachys). The first glume in Eriochloa is usually 
represented by a cup-shaped ridge below the normally 
shaped second glume, but is present in certain species. 
Both glumes are absent in a few genera, such as Reimaro- 
chloa and Homalocenchrus. 



122 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

The student should take careful note of the theoretical relations 
of the parts of the spikelet, since it is a knowledge of these relations 
that enables one to assign a morphological status to an absent organ. 
The glumes and lemmas are morphologically equivalent, namely 
bracts. But in the great majority of species of grasses the lower 2 
bracts of the spikelet are empty and the others above contain flowers. 
By definition the lower pair are called glumes and those above are 
called lemmas. The glumes are nearly always differentiated structu- 
rally from the lemmas. 

The theory of the evolution of organisms teaches us to trace 
the development, progressively or retrogressively, of organs through 
groups of allied species. Such an examination will usually enable us 
to interpret correctly the morphology of the organs. For example, we 
wish to know the morphology of the spikelet of Reimarochloa and 
Homalocenchrus. In the former we have a spikelet consisting of 1 
empty bract and 1 flowering bract. How is this to be interpreted? 
In the first place we are confident that the genus belongs to the large 
tribe Paniceae and that it is closely allied to Paspalum and Panicum. 
The typical spikelet of the Paniceie consists of 4 bracts, the upper- 
most of which contains a perfect flower. This bract, by definition 
a fertile lemma, is distinctly different from those below. The first 
and second bracts are empty and by definition are glumes. The third 
is by definition also a lemma even though it contains no flower. An 
examination of the spikelets of various genera shows that there are 
all gradations between species in which the lower lemma, usually 
called the sterile lemma, contains a perfect flower (Isachne) to those 
which contain stamens, or only a pale a, and finally to those which 
are empty. This, of course, confirms the statement that the third 
bract is a lemma. No transitions are found between the glumes and 
the lemma. But we do find a tendency on the part of the glumes to 
retrogress in size. The first glume is usually smaller than the second, 
and the retrogression can easily be traced through its slight develop- 
ment in Syntherisma and Panicum to its disappearance in Paspalum. 
Similarly the second glume shows a tendency to disappear, cul- 
minating in its absence in Reimarochloa. Furthermore, there is 
no tendency for the second glume to disappear before the first. From 
the above we conclude that the single empty bract below the fertile 
lemma in Reimarochloa is the sterile lemma, that is, it is homologous 
with the third bract or sterile lemma of the typical spikelet of the 
tribe. 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 123 

We may also conclude that the 2 organs inclosing the flower of 
Homalocenchrus are lemma and palea and that the 2 glumes are 
absent, since in Oryza, a closely allied genus, the glumes are present, 
though small. 

The glumes are sometimes awned, but less frequently 
so than are the lemmas. They are variously modified and 
distorted in a few genera, the first glumes of a group of 
spikelets together forming a sort of involucre around the 
group (Anthephora), thickened like a bird's head (Lopho- 
lepis), globose and pitted (Rytilix). The large second 
glume is covered with hooks in Nazia so that the group of 
spikelets becomes a bur. In Alopecurus the glumes are 
connate, that is, grown together along the edges to form 
a cup (Fig. 39). 

153. Anomalous glumes. — The glumes of some genera 
of Hordeae show certain anomalies. In Lolium and in a 
few allied genera the spikelets are sessile on a flattened 
rachis but stand edgewise to this instead of crosswise as 
is usual in other genera (Fig. 57). But one glume (the 
second) is present and this on the outer side of the spike- 
let. It is longer and larger than the lemmas, sometimes 
longer than the spikelet, and looks like a subtending bract. 
In the terminal spikelet of the spike, however, both 
glumes are developed. In Sitanion and some species of 
allied genera the glumes are reduced to subulate awns, 
these forming a sort of involucre to the groups of spike- 
lets. In certain species of Elymus (e.g., E. virginicus L.) 
the glumes of the lateral spikelets stand in pairs in front 
of the spikelets. 

Hochstetter states that the glumes of Hordeum and many 
species of Elymus are single but cleft into 2 parts. Schenck thinks 
that they are sterile spikelets. (For full discussion, see Bot. Jahrb. 
Engler40:97. 1907.) 



124 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

154. The lemmas are the bracts of the spikelet above 
the glumes. They ordinarily subtend flowers but some- 
times are empty. The lemmas vary from 1 to many (as 
many as 50 in Eragrostis) and except in Streptochseta are 
in 2 ranks upon the rachilla. As is usually the case with 
bracts, the lemma represents the leaf-base, the blade 
not being developed. 

Streptochseta is an anomalous Brazilian genus in which the 
lemmas are spirally arranged. 

In the more primitive forms of grasses, the lemmas 
are usually bract-like in appearance and in a general way 
resemble the glumes, being greenish, keeled and nerved. 
In more modified forms such as Andropogonege, the lemmas 
are often thin and delicate, being entirely inclosed by the 
enlarged and indurated glumes. On the other hand, the 
lemma may be hardened, as in most Paniceae, where the 
lemma of the fertile floret is hard, usually smooth and 
nerveless. Modification is carried to a greater extent in 
the lemma than in any other organ of the grass plant. 
For this reason the form of the lemma is of great impor- 
tance in classification, its shape, texture and nerving being 
uniform within definite limits in any given genus. In 
those genera, such as Andropogon and its relatives, 
Hilaria, Anthephora and the like, in which the glumes are 
enlarged, indurated or otherwise specialized, the lemmas 
are found to be thin or small or otherwise to show but 
little modification. 

In grasses having unspecialized or but slightly modi- 
fied glumes, as in most of the genera, the lemmas are 
usually strongly characteristic. The lemma, whether 
bearing a fertile flower or empty, as in the lower lemma in 
most species of Panicese, or modified into a cluster of 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 125 

awns, as in some species of Chlorideae, is to be recognized 
by its position on the rachilla. In canary-grass (Phalaris 
canariensis L.) there are 2 minute bracts at the base of the 
fertile lemma. These are greatly reduced lemmas. The 
indurated lemma of Stipa and Aristida is peculiar in that 
it assumes a cylindrical form and extends downward into 
a hard, sharp-pointed callus (Figs. 35, 36). At maturity 
the fruits, by means of this sharp point and by the 
hygroscopic awns at the apex, are able to bury themselves 
in the soil. Certain genera of Andropogonese (Hetero- 
pogon, Chrysopogon) produce fruits similar in general 
appearance to those of Stipa, but in the former the fruit 
is developed from a spikelet instead of from a floret. 

In Heteropogon and other genera of Andropogoneae with stout 
awns, the first glume is indurated, cylindrical and sharp-pointed at 
base as in the lemma in Stipa. Within this are the second glume, the 
sterile lemma and the fertile lemma, all thin and hyahne, the latter 
bearing the long stout awn. 

155. Sterile florets and sterile lemmas. — Sterile florets 
are those which differ from the perfect florets of the spike- 
let in which they are found in lacking pistils. They may 
also lack stamens, and consist of a lemma and palea, or 
the palea also may be lacking. The lemma of such a 
floret is called a sterile lemma. If a lower floret lacks 
stamens, then the lemma is the same as the third empty 
glume of some authors, when they refer to bracts above 
the first pair. In many genera of the series Poaoidese the 
upper florets are reduced to sterile florets. In Melica 
there may be 2 or 3 sterile lemmas successively convolute 
one within another. In most of the genera of Panicoideae 
there is a sterile floret below a terminal perfect one. The 
sterile floret of Panicum and its allies has been mentioned 



126 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

before (Par. 152). The sterile lemma of Andropogonese, 
also below the perfect floret as in Panicese, is membrana- 
ceous, thinner than the glumes, often very dehcate. In 
the tribe Phalaridese, there are usually 2 sterile florets at 
the base of the terminal fertile floret (Fig. 34). These 
lateral florets may be empty (Phalaris, Anthoxanthum) 
or staminate (Savastana). 

156. The awns are bristle-like continuations of the 
nerves of the glumes or lemmas. Awns involve vascular 
tissue while hairs of various kinds (trichomes) involve 
only epidermal tissue. The commonest position for the 
awn is terminal as in Festuca, where the midnerve is 
extended as a bristle. Often the apex of the lemma is 
cleft and the awn arises from between the lobes or teeth. 
Occasionally the 2 teeth thus formed are also awned. 
Sometimes the lateral nerves of the lemma extend into 
teeth or awns (Tridens). 

In the cases mentioned, the central awn is terminal. 
Sometimes the awn arises below the apex of the lemma 
even nearly at the base, in which case it is said to be dorsal. 
When the awn is dorsal, the lemma shows no midnerve 
above the point of attachment of the awn or rather above 
the point where the midnerve separates from the tissue 
of the lemmas, thus forming an awn (Fig. 45). The awns 
of Aristida (Fig. 35) are usually trifid, with divergent 
often much-elongated branches (as much as 4 inches long 
in a South American species). In Pappophorum the 
lemma is divided at the summit into many awns. In 
other genera the awns are hooked, or bent, or variously 
divided, sometimes smooth, but usually scabrous, some- 
times plumose. In several genera the awn is jointed at 
the base and deciduous, as in Oryzopsis, Nassella, Pipto- 
chsetium. 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 127 

Morphologically the awn is thought to represent the 
blade, and the lemma the sheath of a primary leaf. If the 
awn is dorsal the free portion of the lemma above the 
insertion of the awn probably represents the ligule. (See 
Domin, Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 24:200. 1910.) 

157. Twisted awns. — Not infrequently the awns are 
spirally twisted. This torsion is well shown in the large 
awns of certain species of Stipa, such as the porcupine- 
grass of the prairies (S. spartea Trin.). The awns are 
several inches long, stout at base but tapering to a fine 
point (Fig. 36). The awn at first is straight and untwisted, 
but at maturity it bends at 2 points and becomes closely 
spirally twisted up to the second bend. The torsion is 
very sensitive to atmospheric moisture so that the awn 
becomes less twisted or almost straight in moist air and 
twists tightly again in dry air. Twisted awns are found 
especially in Andropogonese (Fig. 16), Avenese (Fig. 44), 
and Stipa. 

158. The palea is the bract standing between the 
flower and the rachilla. It is usually 2-nerved or 2- 
keeled with the space between the nerves concave and 
with the margins bent forward about the flower. It is 
homologous with the prophyllum which it resembles in 
structure. The palea is usually embraced by the lemma at 
the margins, or sometimes entirely inclosed as in Stipa 
and Aristida, although it may project more or less at the 
apex. Though the palea is usually 2-nerved, it is appar- 
ently 1 -nerved in a few genera because the 2 nerves are 
so close together (e.g., Cinna). So-called 1-nerved paleas 
occur only in 1-flowered spikelets. The apex of the palea 
is usually rounded or notched but may be toothed, the 
teeth being rarely awned. The keels are usually smooth 
or scabrous but may be ciliate (Eragrostis), winged (Pleu- 



128 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

ropogon), or the margins may be greatly enlarged (Ixo- 
phorus). The palea is reduced to a nerveless scale or may 
be obsolete in Agrostis and in species of Andropogon. 
The palea usually falls from the rachilla together with 
the lemma but may be persistent upon the axis (e. g., 
Eragrostis, Fig. 51). 

159. The lodicules are small organs found at the base 
of the floret, outside the stamens. They are usually 2 
in number, standing in front of the lemma, close together. 
A third lodicule is present in a few genera and is placed 
in front of the palea. In the anomalous bamboo genus 
Ochlandra there are several lodicules. The function of the 
lodicules is to open the floret at anthesis. They become 
turgid and thus spread the lemma and palea apart, later 
collapsing and allowing the floret to close by its own 
elasticity. The lodicules are interpreted by some to be 
homologous with the divisions of a perianth of which only 
2 divisions have usually persisted. 

160. The stamen consists of a delicate filiform fila- 
ment and a 2-celled anther, opening by longitudinal slits. 
The anthers are basifixed but so deeply sagittate, as to 
appear versatile. There are usually 3 stamens, 1 standing 
in front of the lemma and 1 opposite each edge of the palea. 
Sometimes there is a second whorl inside of the first and 
alternating with it, making 6 stamens (most bamboos, 
many Oryzeae). There are various departures from these 
numbers. There may be only 2 (Diarrhena), or only 1 
(Cinna), rarely 4 in 2 whorls, and in certain anomalous 
genera more than 6 (Pariana, Luziola, Ochlandra). The 
filaments are more or less connate in a few bamboos and 
in Streptochaeta. 

From the standpoint of evolution, the species with 6 stamens 
in 2 whorls probably represent a more primitive form as this structure 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 129 

Would tend to show relationship with the hUes, The species with 1 
and 2 stamens evidently show a reduction from the usual 3-stamened 
type by the abortion of 1 or more of its members. 

161. The pistil is single, with a 1-celled ovary, 2 styles 
and 2 stigmas. Occasionally there are 3 styles (Strepto- 
chseta, some bamboos), or only 1 (Nardus). There is 
apparently only 1 also in corn (the ''silk") but this arises 
from the union of 2. When there are 2 styles or 2 sessile 
stigmas they arise not from the apex of the ovary but 
from the sides near the apex. Sometimes there is a single 
style that divides into 2 branches. The styles of corn are 
unusually long and slender thus raising the stigmas out 
of the large bracts or husks surrounding the ear. The 
stigmas usually consist of papillate or plumose continua- 
tions of the styles. The ovary contains a single ovule 
grown to the side of the ovary without a funiculus, the 
micropyle turned downward. In Streptochseta and Strep- 
togyne the long spirally twisted styles and stigmas of 
adjacent spikelets become interlaced at maturity. 

According to Hackel and others, the pistil is 1-carpeled; 
according to Walker, it is made up of 3 carpels (Walker, 
"On the Structure of the Pistils of Some Grasses." Univ. 
Nebr. Studies6:No. 3. 1906.) 

162. The fruit is usually a caryopsis, the seed being 
adherent to the pericarp. The seed-coat is poorly devel- 
oped and the pericarp acts as a seed-coat. The caryopsis 
is sometimes more or less united with the palea, rarely 
also with the lemma. The caryopsis is, however, often 
inclosed within the lemma and palea without being adher- 
ent to them. 

As in flowering plants in general the fruit in the restricted sense 
is the ripened ovary and its contents. In a wider sense the fruit is 
the ripened ovary together with the adjacent parts which may aid in 

I 



130 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

protection, germination or dispersal. In the present discussion the 
term fruit is used in both senses. 

The fruit of Panicum and allied genera consists of 
the hard, tightly closed fertile lemma and palea within 
which is the caryopsis (Fig. 21). Not infrequently the awn 
of the lemma is involved in the fruit and performs an 
important function in dispersal or in connection with 
germination. This is the case with Stipa (Fig. 36), 
Aristida (Fig. 35), Heteropogen and many Avenese. 
The fruit may include the surrounding sterile branchlets 
forming a bur, as in Cenchrus (Fig. 27); a greatly har- 
dened inclosing bract, as in Coix (Fig. 12); the joints of 
the rachis in which the spikelet is partially inclosed, as in 
Tripsacum; or a combination of rachis joint and long- 
awned sterile spikelets, as in Sitanion and Hordeum. 

Rarely the ovary ripens into some form other than a 
caryopsis. In a few genera such as Sporobolus and Eleu- 
sine, it becomes an utricle, the pericarp being thin and not 
grown to the seed. In many species of Sporobolus, for 
example *S. airoides Torr. and S. indicus (L.) R. Br., the 
pericarp tends to split vertically into 2 valves, thus being 
dehiscent. The pericarp of Eleusine breaks away irregu- 
larly. The fruit becomes a nut or a berry in certain 
bamboos. 

163. The seed consists of an embryo at the base on 
one side and of endosperm occupying the remaining por- 
tion. If the surface of a caryopsis is examined, the posi- 
tion of the embryo is outlined as a depressed usually oval 
area at the base on the front side, that is, on the side 
facing the lemma. On the opposite side, next the palea, 
is the mark called the hilum, which indicates the place 
where the seed was attached to the wall of the ovary 
(pericarp). The hilum may be elongated if the seed is 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 131 

attached for a considerable distance, or may be puncti- 
form, and is characteristic in shape for some genera. There 
is often a furrow on this posterior side of the caryopsis in 
which will be found the hilum. Since the palea is often 
grown to the caryopsis this must be removed when search- 
ing for the hilum. 

164. The embryo is straight or nearly so, the plumule 
directed upward and the young root downward. The 
corn grain illustrates the general features of all grass 
embryos. An important organ is the scutellum which is 
attached to the embryo at the middle and enfolds it, 
lying against the endosperm on its outer surface. This 
organ is thought to represent the first leaf or cotyledon. 
Its function is to absorb the nourishment from the stored 
food during germination. In large embryos like the corn 
there may be observed on the sides of the epicotyl, or first 
joint above the attachment of the scutellum, the begin- 
nings of lateral or secondary roots. In other genera the 
rudimentary secondary roots usually appear on the 
hypocotyl. 

165. The endosperm consists mainly of starch, 
although there is a considerable amount of oil, which, 
however, is mainly in the embryo. On the outside within 
the epidermis is a layer of cells containing aleurone, rich 
in protein. The stored food is also called albumen by 
some authors. The endosperm is hard and corneous or 
mealy according to the density of the starch-contain- 
ing cells. 

166. The rachilla is the axis of the spikelet. It may be 
jointed to the pedicel below the glumes (usual in Pani- 
coidese), or jointed above the glumes (usual in Poa- 
oidese). It may be continuous (Eragrostis, Fig. 51) or 
articulated between the florets at maturity (Festuca). 



132 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

In genera with many-flowered spikelets the rachilla is of 
course elongated, while in 1-flowered spikelets it is reduced 
so that the floret seems to be terminal. It often extends 
beyond the insertion of the upper floret in many-flowered 
spikelets but is usually hidden by the upper lemmas. In 
1-flowered spikelets the rachilla may extend beyond the 
base of the floret. It then appears as a slender sometimes 
plumose bristle or stalk pressed against the palea. This 
extension of the rachilla sometimes bears a rudimentary 
second floret. The first internode of the rachilla above 
the glumes is sometimes elongated, forming a stipe to the 
floret. This stipe may be developed into a sharp-pointed 
callus, which at maturity aids in seed-dispersal (Stipa, 
Aristida). Usually the internodes of the rachilla between 
the florets are short, the florets being closely imbricated; 
but, occasionally, they are elongated, the florets being 
rather distant, as in Senites. 

A peculiar jointing of the rachiUa is to be observed in Festuca 
suhulifiora Scribn. in which there is an articulation midway between 
the distant florets. This is probably due to "a downward elongation 
of the callus, surrounding and becoming grown to the rachilla, 
which has likewise become elongated so that the joint is still at the 
base of the callus." * 

♦Piper, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 10:36. 1906. 



CHAPTER XIII 

ECOLOGY 

Ecology is that branch of botany which treats of the 
relation of plants to their environment. It is often con- 
sidered to be a branch of physiology since it is a study of 
the response to stimuli. Plants are acted upon by exter- 
nal factors, either physical or biological. The response 
to these forces determines the plant's adaptation to its 
environment. The more important ways in which grasses 
are influenced by environment will be briefly discussed. 

SEED DISPERSAL 

167. The seeds of grasses are for the most part 
adapted to dispersal by means of the wind. Some kinds 
are so small that they are readily transported in this 
manner without any special adaptation. The fruit by 
itself (Eragrostis) or inclosed in the lemma and palea 
(Poa) is easily blown about by air currents. In Panicum 
and its allies the whole spikelet falls away by disarticula- 
ting below the glumes. Among the Andropogonese the 
axis of the spike usually disarticulates between the pairs 
of spikelets and the resulting joints are sufficiently small 
to allow of their being easily transported by the wind. 

168. Dispersal by wind. — But the fruit is not infre- 
quently modified in such manner as to make wind dis- 
persal more effective. A common adaptation is the devel- 
opment of silky hairs on some part of the fruit. Such 

(133) 



134 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

hairs are found on the lemmas in Arundo, on the rachilla 
joints in Phragmites, on the whole spikelet in Saccharum 
(Fig. 14), on the awns in Stipa pennata L. of Europe and 
S. spedosa Trin. & Rupr. of California, on the long pedi- 
cels of S. elegantissima Labill. of Australia. Awns and 
bristles often aid dispersal by increasing the surface. Clus- 
ters of spikelets, with their surrounding involucre of bris- 
tles, fall away from the rachis, the bristles catching air 
currents. Long-awned species of Hordese, with disarticu- 
lating rachis, are adapted to wind dispersal. Sitanion and 
Hordeum are good examples of this. The joints of Sitan- 
ion, with their numerous long awns spreading in all direc- 
tions, are sent whirling across the open grassland in the 
western states. In many species of Aristida (Fig. 35) the 
3 awns spread horizontally or are somewhat reflexed. On 
the Great Plains it is common to see, at the proper season, 
the fruits of these grasses being hurled along by the high 
winds, the sharp-pointed callus to the front ready to catch 
in the wool or hair of animals. From such fruits it is an 
easy transition to wing-fruits, in which the increased sur- 
face is furnished by wings, appendages or sterile parts. 
The inflated lemma of Briza, the winged crests on the 
lemmas of Phalaris, the group of sterile spikelets of 
Phalaris paradoxa, all aid in dispersal. In some grasses 
the whole inflorescence breaks away and becomes a 
''tumble-weed." The panicles of Panicum capillar e L., 
Agrostis hiemalis (Walt.) B. S. P., Chloris vertidllata Nutt. 
and Eragrostis pedinacea (Michx.) Nees, are familiar exam- 
ples. At maturity the panicles separate from the plant 
and roll over the surface of the ground before the wind, 
the widely spreading branches making the whole very 
light. The small fruits are dropped here and there as the 
panicle travels. The inflorescence of Schedonnardus panic- 



ECOLOGY 135 

ulatus (Nutt.) Trel., a common grass in Texas, consists 
of several slender distant spikes arranged along a slender 
axis. After flowering, the central axis greatly elongates 
becoming at the same time somewhat spirally coiled. The 
lateral spikes also elongate. There results a loose cylin- 
drical skeleton that can be easily rolled along by the wind 
after it disarticulates from the parent plant. 

An indirect method of adaptation for wind dispersal 
is illustrated by the fruits of Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn^ 
and Sporoholus indicus (L.) R. Br. The pericarp of these, 
when wet, develops a mucilage by which the seeds are 
enabled to stick to leaves or other objects that may be 
blown about by the wind. In so far as they are able to 
stick to birds or other animals they are adapted also to 
this method of dispersal. 

169. Dispersal by animals. — Some grasses are adapted 
to dispersal by the aid of animals. The species of Cen- 
chrus (Fig. 27) produce burs made up of a group of con- 
nate branchlets armed with retrorsely barbed spines. 
The bur-like spikelet of Nazia produces hooks on the 
second glume. The callus of the fruits of Aristida (Fig. 
35), Stipa (Fig. 36), Heteropogon, Chrysopogon and 
other needle-fruits of this kind, is sharp-pointed and armed 
with retrorse hairs. Such fruits readily bore into the 
coats of animals. The fruits of certain Hordeae, with 
disarticulating rachises, have been mentioned above 
under adaptations for wind dispersal Usually in these 
fruits, the point of the rachis-joint is sharp and the awns 
are antrorsely scabrous (the teeth pointing forward). 
They thus are adapted to working their way into the coats 
of animals. In Panicum glutinosum of the American 
tropics the spikelets are viscid and readily attach them- 
selves to a passing body. 



136 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

GEKMINATION 

170. The situation of the embryo in the grass seed is 
such that by the enlargement and growth of the organs 
the plumule and root at once emerge in opposite direc- 
tions. The seed remains in position, which is usually 
upon the surface of the ground. The primary root at 
first elongates but soon secondary roots appear which in 
a short time exceed the primary. The plumule pushes up 
somewhat later. The first leaf of the plumule acts as a 
protecting sheath and never develops into a foliage leaf. 
If the seed is below the surface of the soil this sheath, 
closed at the apex, elongates until the surface is reached, 
when the tip breaks and the bud pushes through. In 
many embryos there is a small scale-like organ (epiblast) 
at the base of the plumule opposite the scutellum. This 
is thought by some to represent a leaf, in which case the 
scutellum is the first leaf or cotyledon, and the pro- 
tecting sheath of the plumule is the third leaf. 

171. The germination of the maize is described at 
length by Collins. The protecting sheath he calls the 
coleoptyle. Between the coleoptyle and the seed is a more 
or less elongated axis to which the name mesocotyl is 
given. This portion is called by Hackel and others the 
epicotyl on the supposition that it is an internode above 
the cotyledon or scutellum. Collins and others consider 
the scutellum, epiblast and coleoptyle to be all parts of a 
highly specialized cotyledon. Collins also describes the 
germination of Hopi and Navajo varieties of maize in 
which the mesocotyl elongates greatly, reaching the 
enormous length of 25 or even 30 cm. The plumule is 
thus able to reach the surface from a corresponding depth. 
Such varieties are adapted to dry regions. The usual 



ECOLOGY 137 

varieties of maize are unable to force the mesocotyl to a 
length greater than 10 cm. (Collins, Journ. Agr. Res. 
1:293. 1914). 

172. Impervious seed-conveyers. — At maturity all 
seeds are moderately dry within, that is, for the preserva- 
tion of the endosperm during the dormant stage the moist- 
ure has been reduced to a minimum. To protect the 
contents against further loss of moisture which would 
injure or kill the embryo, the seed is enveloped by an 
impervious coating, which serves the double purpose of 
preventing the loss of moisture from within and the 
absorption of moisture from without. The protecting 
coating may be in immediate contact with the seed or it 
may be developed from some outer coating or organ. If 
an outer coating such as the glumes become hardened for 
this purpose, then the inner organs, lemma and pericarp 
are comparatively thin. 

The protective coating is developed from the seed-coat (Sporo- 
bolus), pericarp (wheat), lemma and palea (Panicum), glumes 
(Andropogon), rachis and glume (Tripsacum), sheathing bract 
(Coix), involucre (Cenchrus), or various combinations of these. 
In some cases, as in Cenchrus, several seeds are protected by the 
same outer coating. 

173. Self -burial. — The dormant stage continues 
through the season unfavorable for germination, that is, 
winter or a dry season. When the season for germination 
arrives, the s,eed, under the influence of moisture and 
higher temperature, gradually absorbs water, growth is 
started, the embryo swells and bursts through its sur- 
roundings, and germination has begun. Ordinarily the 
seeds are more or less covered with earth or debris by the 
action of the wind. But some seeds are aided in self- 
burial by the torsion of the awns they possess. The awns 



138 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

of Stipa (Fig. 36) have already been described (Par. 156). 
By the alternate drying and wetting they twist and un- 
twist, bend and straighten. The fruits, being provided 
with a sharp callus, covered with retrorse hairs, gradually 
insinuate themselves into the porous covering of the soil 
and finally into the soil itself. As the fruit is heavier at 
the base, it tends to fall point down. Awns of this kind 
are found upon the fruits of a number of genera, the burial 
being brought about by the rotation of the twisted portion 
or by the bending and straightening of a geniculate portion 
or by a combination of these. Straight awns or bristles 
that are antrorsely scabrous undoubtedly act in the 
same manner. 

Examples of tortion: Stipa, Aristida, Heretopogon, Chryso- 
pogon, Sorghastrum, Arundinella, Avena, Danthonia. Examples 
of antrorsely scabrous awns: Hordeum, Sitanion. 

174. Water grasses. — The seeds of water grasses fall 
into the water and remain moist until germination. It 
has been shown that the seeds of Zizania palustris are 
injured by exposure for any considerable length of time* 
to the drying influence of the air. 

If the caryopsis at the time of germination is normally inclosed 
within outer envelopes, as lemmas or glumes, the embryo must be 
able to push its root and plumule through or around these parts. 
The usual method is for the root to break through the obstruction 
and for the plumule to push up between the parts. 

Some of the grains (wheat, rye, corn and kafir) are naked 
caryopsides and the growth of the embryo is unhampered. The grain 
or caryopsis of the oat is permanently invested by the lemma and 
palea. The root breaks through the back of the lemma near the 
base and the shoot pushes up between the grain and the lemma, 
emerging at the apex. The fruit of barley also consists of the grain 
inclosed in the lemma and palea and more or less adherent to the 

*For a full discussion of this subject, see Brown & Scofield, "Wild Rice: Its 
Uses and Propagation," U.S. Dept. Agric. Bur. PI. Ind. BuUetin No, 50. 1903 



ECOLOGY 139 

former. Emmer differs from wheat in that the whole spikelet con- 
taining several seeds becomes a fruit and breaks away from the 
rachis entire. The seed-like fruit of foxtail millet {Chsetochloa italica) 
and proso millet {Panicum miliaceum) consists of a coriaceous lemma 
and palea tightly inclosing the thin- walled caryopsis. In all these 
cases the root breaks through the back of the lemma near the base 
by spUtting the tissue and the shoot pushes up through the space 
between the caryopsis and the lemma, emerging near the tip. In 
Johnson-grass {Holcus halepensis) the grain is enveloped by the 
hard glumes and delicate lemma, sterile lemma and palea. The 
tissue of the glume appears to be too firm to permit the root to 
penetrate, for it passes through between the glumes. The fruit of 
tall oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius) consists of 2 florets, only the 
second of which is fertile. The root passes through the back of the 
lemma of this floret. Rice germinates in a manner different from 
that of the other fruits described. The caryopsis is inclosed in the 
much-flattened and keeled lemma and palea. The shoot breaks 
through the back of the lemma at the base and appears first as a 
pointed organ at the base of which later emerge the roots. 

175. Propagation by bulblets. — Some grasses of high 
latitudes and altitudes produce, in the inflorescence, 
bulblets in place of ordinary spikelets. Bulblets arc 
spikelets or portions of spikelets, in which the floral 
bracts have been transformed into small leaves, the whole 
becoming a vegetative shoot. These bulblets, which may 
be provided with young roots, fall off and produce new 
plants. A number of species may, under certain con- 
ditions, produce bulblets, while a few do this uniformly in 
certain regions {Poa hulhosa L.). Certain species (as Poa 
alpina L.) are ordinarily sexual but in extremes of alti- 
tudes and latitudes are asexual. 

PLANT SOCIETIES 

176. So far as concerns their adaptation to environ- 
ment based upon condition of moisture, grasses may be 



140 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

divided into four groups — mesophytes, xerophytes, halo- 
phytes and hydrophytes. It should be understood that 
there is no sharp Hne between these groups. There are 
transitions in all directions. It is impossible to define 
in exact terms the limits that circumscribe these groups. 
One cannot, except approximately, say that plants 
growing upon soil containing certain definite limits of 
moisture shall be classed as mesophytes and that between 
other limits the plants shall be called xerophytes. Many 
other conditions modify the effect. One must judge 
rather by the sum total of the effect upon the plant, that is, 
the reaction to environment. If the plant shows general 
adaptations that aid it in resisting loss of moisture, the 
plant is a xerophyte. However, it often happens that the 
soil may contain sufficient moisture a part of the time and 
a deficiency at other times. So far as the plant is con- 
cerned the critical period is the growing season. A beech 
tree is a mesophyte in summer and a xerophyte in winter. 
In the summer there is sufficient moisture for its broad 
thin leaf-blades. In winter the ground freezes, the 
branches and twigs may freeze, moisture can not be sup- 
phed to so great a surface, and the surface is reduced by 
casting off the leaves. Nevertheless the beech is classed 
as a mesophyte. On the other hand, desert regions are 
visited occasionally by heavy rains and for a short time 
the soil may be saturated. But the plants of these regions 
are called xerophytes, because these periods of abundance 
are not of sufficient length to effect the general adaptations 
of the plants. 

177. Mesophytes. — As the name indicates, this group 
includes those grasses that thrive under medium condi- 
tions of moisture. They are not water plants on the one 
hand, and on the other hand are not especially adapted to 



ECOLOGY 141 

resist evaporation. They include most grasses of swamps, 
bogs, moist land along water-courses, and the inhabitants 
of forest and woodland. Grasses that become weeds in 
cultivated and waste soil usually belong to the meso- 
phytes. In general they have flat blades and will endure 
considerable alternation of conditions between a large 
amount of soil moisture and a moderate amount of 
drought. 

Familiar examples of mesophytes are the common cultivated 
grasses, such as corn, the small grains, sorghum, sugar-cane, the 
meadow grasses, common annual weeds, such as crab-grass and fox- 
tail, and the shade grasses of the tropical forests. 

Certain areas of open grass land include a mesophytic 
flora. Natural meadow land contains too much moisture 
to be classed as prairie. Grass land which contains an 
excess of water, but not enough to support strictly water 
plants, may be classed as bog, swamp, marsh or slough. 
The tundra of northern regions includes a large grass 
element. It is open wet land — wet because the subsoil is 
frozen and there is poor drainage. At high altitudes are 
found mountain meadows that support a mesophytic 
flora, even though the soil be dry, the low temperature 
being the determining factor. 

178. Xerophytes. — These are grasses that are fitted 
to endure soil conditions in which the moisture content 
is deficient. They are, in consequence of this deficiency 
provided with especial adaptations to resist evaporation. 
In xerophytes belonging to other families of plants, water- 
storing organs are common, but among grasses this 
adaptation is rare. 

Panicum hulbosum H. B. K,, of New Mexico, is provided with 
a corm which probably acts as a storehouse of moisture. The corms 
at the base of some species of Mehca, and the chain of corms in 



142 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

Arrhenatherum elatius bulbosum (Par. 241) may serve for storage, 
although the plant last mentioned is not a xerophyte. 

In general, xerophytic grasses have become adapted 
to their surroundings by the production of impervious 
epidermis or of mechanical tissue in leaves and stems and 
by fine foliage. Roll-leaves, described in a preceding 
paragraph (Par. 139), are common. The foliage of xero- 
phytic grasses is nearly always firm and hard from the 
excessive development of sclerenchyma fibers and other 
mechanical tissue and the relative lack of soft parenchy- 
matous tissue. The stomata are in protected places, in 
the longitudinal furrows of the blades or on the inside of 
rolled blades. All these structures tend to retard evapo- 
ration and prevent the loss of water which cannot readily 
be obtained from the dry soil. 

There are four chief habitats where xerophytic grasses 
may be found, — ^prairie, sandy soil, rocks and desert. 

179. Prairie is open grass land where the soil is deficient 
in moisture. If open grass land occurs upon soil in which 
there is no deficiency of moisture it may be swamp, tundra 
or mountain meadow as indicated under a preceding 
paragraph (Par. 177). Prairies are found as isolated 
areas interspersed through regions that are chiefly occupied 
by a mesophytic flora, as the eastern united States. In 
Iowa and Missouri, they occupy large areas, with wood- 
land interspersed. A vast prairie extending from Texas 
northward far into Canada is called the Great Plains. 
Similar regions in western Asia are called steppes and in 
South America are called pampas and llanos. In Central 
America and in some other countries, they are known as 
savannahs (or savannas). The dominant plants of these 
prairies and plains are grasses. In general, there are 
many species producing rhizomes or stolons so that much 



ECOLOGY 143 

of the surface is covered by a sod. Stipas and various 
Andropogonese, especially Andropogon, are often dominant 
species. Over much of the Great Plains, a single species, 
Bulhilis dactyloides (buffalo-grass) or this combined with 
Bouteloua gracilis (grama -grass) gives a characteristic 
aspect to the vegetation. Those grasses often called 
'^short grasses" may occupy vast areas almost to the 
exclusion of other species of plants. Farther south, the 
Bulbilis is replaced by Hilaria cenchroides (curly mes- 
quite). This portion of the Great Plains is known locally 
as the "short-grass country" because the uniform com- 
pact curly growth is only a few inches high. The regions 
described above are known as semi-arid regions. 

180. Sandy soil. — Plants characteristic of sandy soil 
are sometimes called psammophytes. The best illustration 
of this kind of xerophytes may be observed upon sand- 
dunes. These are found along sandy seacoasts of temper- 
ate regions, the sandy shores of lakes, along the banks of 
rivers, especially in arid regions, and in dry interior regions 
far removed from bodies of water. Such areas are found 
in the United States along the Atlantic seaboard, especi- 
ally on Cape Cod, along the Great Lakes, especially the 
eastern and southern shore of Lake Michigan, and along 
certain large rivers, such as the Columbia east of the 
Cascades, and the Arkansas in western Kansas. Large 
areas of sand hills are found in interior regions such as 
central Nebraska. 

181. Sand-dunes may be so far removed from water 
or in such rapid motion that no vegetation can be sup- 
ported. Dunes near the sea, though completely dried 
out at the surface may be moist beneath on account of 
the drawing of water from below by capillary attraction. 
Many grasses of sand-dunes produce a well-developed 



144 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

system of rhizomes. These do not form a sod as the soil 
is too poor in plant-food to support plants sufficiently 
near together. Representative species are Ammophila 
arenaria and Spartma patens (Ait.) Muhl. along the sea- 
coast, Calamovilfa longifolia (Hook.) Hack, in the Great 
Plains, Elymus flavescens Scribn. & Smith in the Colum- 
bia River basin and Elymus arenarius L. of the Alaskan 
seacoast. The first mentioned, Ammophila arenaria^ 
called beach- or marram-grass, is a typical sand-binder. 
It not only produces widely extending rhizomes which 
may reach great depth, but the culms push upward as the 
sand drifts around them. (Par. 93). 

182. Pine-barrens. — Sandy regions in which there is 
a sparse forest-cover represent xerophytic conditions, 
though less marked than those of dune areas. The pine- 
barrens of the Atlantic coastal plain are typical of these 
regions. They are mostly level areas covered with open 
pine woods. Southward they include the turpentine 
country, and in Florida they become the "high pine land'' 
and the still more xerophytic ''scrub." These regions are 
the home of the smaller species of Panicum and many 
other peculiar grasses. 

183. Rocks. — On account of the impervious sub- 
stratum, plants growing upon rocks are insufficiently 
provided with water unless near some source of supply, 
such as spray from a waterfall, springs, melting snow and 
the like. Hence xerophytic grasses may occur in a meso- 
phytic region. Such grasses are bunch-grasses as rhizomes 
do not develop under these conditions. 

184. Deserts. — Regions in which the deficiency in the 
water-content of the soil is greater than in prairie and in 
which the humidity of the atmosphere is very low, are 
called desertS; or arid regions. Deserts owe their aridity 



ECOLOGY 145 

primarily to scanty rainfall rather than to soil conditions, 
as in the case of rocks and sand-dunes. They are so 
situated that the prevailing winds have been previously 
deprived of their moisture by passing over mountains. 
The chief desert region of the United States is found in 
the Great Basin from the plains of the Columbia in eastern 
Washington southward through Arizona to the Mexican 
plateau. The aridity increases southward and reaches 
its maximum in the Colorado Desert of southeastern 
California. The annual rainfall is less than 20 inches, 
often less than 10 inches. On account of the higher tem- 
perature and longer summers the aridity increases 
southward even though the rainfall may remain the 
same. Other desert regions are found along the 
Pacific slope in Peru and northern Chili, in the interior 
of Australia and Asia, and the Sahara Desert of north 
Africa. 

The perennial grasses of deserts are for the most part 
bunch-grasses and on account of the scarcity of moisture 
the bunches are widely scattered. In contradistinction 
to the other xerophytic regions, deserts are inhabited by 
several species of annual grasses. Such grasses are adapted 
to the distribution of the rainfall. This usually comes in 
occasional heavy showers. Immediately after such a 
shower the seeds of annuals germinate, develop rapidly 
and mature seed before the effects of the shower have 
passed away. This adaptation to seasonal moisture is 
especially marked if the showers are concentrated within 
a certain period of the year forming a rainy season. In 
southern Arizona there are usually two such rainy sea- 
sons, one in winter and one in summer, with a correspond- 
ing growth of annuals, many of them grasses, after each 
period of rainfall. In all desert regions the grasses tend 
J 



146 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

to collect in depressions or drainage basins where the 
water from showers remains longest. 

185. Halophytic grasses are those that grow in soil 
containing an excess of mineral salts. In general they are 
known as salt-marsh plants. They are found in the salt- 
marshes of the seacoast and of interior alkali regions. 
The soil that supports halophytes may not be lacking in 
water, but the presence of soluble salts increases the 
density of the soil-water and hence renders it less easily 
absorbed by the root-system of the plant. Although 
growing in water or wet soil, the plants have difficulty in 
obtaining the necessary water-supply and consequently, 
to avoid injury from loss of water through evaporation, 
xerophytic characters have been developed. Among these 
characters may be mentioned harshness due to the pres- 
ence of mechanical tissue, roll-leaves, and succulence. 
Familiar examples of halophytic grasses are Spartina 
glabra Muhl. of the Atlantic coast salt-marshes and 
Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene of the interior alkali plains. 

186. Hydrophytes are water plants. They grow in 
the water, either submerged or from soil that is perma- 
nently saturated. Only a few grasses, such as Hydrochloa 
caroliniensis Beauv., are nearly or quite submerged. But 
there are many that inhabit permanent fresh-water or 
brackish marshes. To this group belong Zizania palustris 
L. (Indian rice), Zizaniopsis miliacea (Michx.) Doll & 
Asch., Paspalum dissectum L. and P. repens Berg. Pani- 
cum elephantipes Nees and Echinochloa sabuUcola Nees 
of the American tropics are succulent hydroph5rtes, grow- 
ing in several feet of water. Paspalum repens, of Pan- 
ama, forms long runners that float upon the surface of 
the water, buoyed up by their inflated sheaths. 

Swamp-grasses as distinguished from marsh-grasses 



ECOLOGY 147 

are usually to be classed with mesophytes, because they 
are subject to much fluctuation in the water-supply. The 
soil may be saturated at one time and moderately dry 
at another time. Swamp-grasses often show xerophytic 
characters, especially roll-leaves. During the early part 
of the growing season, particularly in the North, the air 
at least during the day is warm while the roots are im- 
mersed in the cold substratum. There is thus danger of 
the loss of water by evaporation from the leaves faster 
than the cold sluggish root-system can supply it; hence 
the presence of roll-leaves. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 

187. Geographical distribution of plants is their 
range or dissemination over the surface of the earth. 
The present distribution is the result of causes which 
have acted through an indefinitely long period of time and 
often over areas of continental extent. Every species of 
plant occupies its present area by virtue of its ability to 
adapt itself to its environment. If the environmental 
conditions change, the plants concerned must become 
adapted to the new conditions, or they are forced to mi- 
grate, or, failing in this, they become extinct. It is not 
the purpose here to discuss the causes that have brought 
about these changes, but merely to outline the present 
distribution of the grass family. For a further discussion 
the student is referred to the works dealing with the 
evolution of plants, especially those of Darwin, Wallace, 
Hooker and Gray. 

Darwin: "Origin of Species." Wallace: "Darwinism," "Island 
Life/' "The World of Life," and other works. Hooker: "Distri- 
bution of Arctic Plants." Gray: "Collected Essays." 



148 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

188. Distribution of grasses. — As stated in a preceding 
paragraph (Par. 121), the grasses are represented in all 
parts of the earth's land-surface where the conditions are 
suitable for the growth of flowering plants, from sea-level 
to the snow-line on the high mountains, from Greenland 
to the antarctic continent, from swamp to desert, and 
from the deep forest to the clefts of the boldest cliff. The 
great tribes Andropogonese and Panicese predominate in 
the warmer regions, while the Agrostidese and Festucese 
predominate in the cooler regions. Space will not permit 
of detailed references to the distribution of genera and 
species. Small genera are often much restricted in their 
area while large genera are usually distributed over a 
wide area. The great genera Andropogon, Panicum, 
Paspalum and Eragrostis are found throughout the tropics 
of both hemispheres. Muhlenbergia and Bouteloua, also 
large genera, are confined to the American continent and 
are especially well represented on the Mexican plateau. 
Poa and Festuca are found in all continents, but mostly 
in the cooler regions, extending to the northern and 
southern limit of vegetation, and well represented in 
alpine regions, even of the high mountains of the tropics. 

189. Distribution of species. — Species also vary greatly 
as to the extent of the area in which they are found. 
Certain agressive species known as weeds are now wide- 
spread over extensive areas of both hemispheres. Crab- 
grass {Syntherisma sanguinalis) and goose-grass (Eleusine 
indica (L.) Gaertn.) are famihar examples. Heteropogon 
contortus (L.) Beauv. is an example of a similarly wide- 
spread species which is native throughout its area. Many 
species of the seashore and of marshes are likewise exten- 
sively distributed. Spartina glabra Muhl. and Ammophila 
arenaria are found on the seacoast of Europe and America, 



ECOLOGY 149 

the one in salt-marshes the other upon sand-dunes. 
Many species have a circumpolar distribution* and often 
extend southward along the mountain ranges. Poa 
alpina, found at sea-level within the arctic circle, extends 
southward in the Rocky Mountains to Colorado where it 
is found on alpine summits. 

190. Circumpolar distribution. — Those species that 
are indigenous to North America and Eurasia usually 
show evidence, by a present circumpolar distribution, 
such as that of Poa alpina and many others, of a common 
origin in polar regions; or they suggest the probability 
of such distribution in the past. During a preceding 
warm epoch, when vegetation zones lay farther north 
than now, many species were circumpolar that afterward 
were driven south by the succeeding ice period. These 
species survived only where they found conditions suited 
to their requirements. Some were driven along the moun- 
tain ranges; others were driven along the coastal regions. 
As the climates of the northeastern coasts of North 
America and Asia are similar, there are many cases where 
the same or similar species of plants inhabit both 
regions, t Among grasses one notes the genera Diarrhena 
and Zizania, each represented by similar species in the 
two regions and not found elsewhere. 

191. Generic distribution. — Sometimes large genera 
show a special development in certain areas although 
there may be scattering species in regions remote from 
the areas of greatest development. The genera Bouteloua 
and Muhlenbergia, mentioned above, are represented by 
numerous species on the tableland of Mexico, although 
certain species of the former are found as far south as 

*Hooker, "Distribution of Arctic Plants." 

tGray, "Analogy. between the Flora of Japan and that of the United States." 



150 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

Argentina, and of the latter as far north as New England, 
and west even to eastern Asia. The subgenus Dichan- 
thelium of the immense genus Panicum is represented 
by nearly 100 species in southeastern United States, but 
there are a few species extending to the state of Washing- 
ton, and others through the West Indies and Mexico to 
northern South America. Danthonia, with over 100 
species, centers in South Africa, but several species are 
found in America and other countries. 



CHAPTER XIV 
TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION 

Underlying all present systems of classification of 
living organisms is the doctrine of evolution, that all 
organisms are descended from other more or less dis- 
similar organisms and that in the course of such descent 
there is an inherent tendency to vary. Classification is 
an attempt to group organisms in a manner that shall 
represent, as nearly as our knowledge permits, actual 
genetic relationships. 

192. Species. — The size and limits of the proposed 
groups are influenced by convenience. The unit of bio- 
logical classification is the species, a term however which is 
difficult to define. A species includes all those individuals 
that show as much resemblance to each other as they 
might be expected to show if they were all known to be 
descended from a common and comparatively recent 
ancestor. As the genetic history of the individuals is not 
known, the grouping into species is an expression of the 
opinion of the biologist, and his opinion is based upon 
judgment and experience. It should be kept in mind that 
a species is a taxonomic idea* and is not an entity the 
existence of which can be proved. For this reason, 
taxonomists often disagree as to the limits of species. 
The more experience a botanist has had with plants, 
especially with living plants in their native habitat, the 

*"The name itself is but the expression of a taxonomic idea." Greene, 
"Landmarks of Botanical History," p. 122. 

(151) 



152 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

more may his judgment be trusted when defining the 
limits of species with which he is familiar, and the more 
nearly should his taxonomic ideas approach the truth. 
The truth for which the taxonomist seeks is a knowledge 
of genetic relationships; the grouping of organisms into 
species, genera and other divisions is a convenience which 
is intended as nearly as may be to express this truth. 
In the ever-diverging lines of descent, certain groups of 
individuals have been cut off, as it were, from their allies, 
so that in these cases the species of the taxonomist prob- 
ably does express the truth. In other cases the groups 
are in process of formation and separation, and are not 
actually distinct. It is here that the taxonomist meets his 
greatest difficulties. Even with complete knowledge, his 
taxonomic ideas can be no more distinct than are the 
groups as they exist in nature. In proportion to his lack 
of knowledge is the probability that his taxonomic ideas 
fail to represent the truth. It follows, then, that a 
classification submitted by a botanist is accepted by his 
co-workers in proportion to their faith in his judgment and 
their knowledge of his experience. The members of a 
complex group of allied species may have been defined 
and their limits placed with approximate accuracy and 
yet it may be impossible definitely to refer every individual 
to its proper species. According to the degree of divergence 
of allied species in their descent from a common origin, 
there are a greater or less number of intermediate indi- 
viduals. The existence of individuals intermediate between 
two species should not invalidate those species; rather 
they emphasize the fact that species do not exist in nature, 
that they are ideas according to which most of the indi- 
viduals may be classified. 

193. Genera. — A genus is a group of species that are 



TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION 153 

thought to be closely related genetically. The species of 
a genus will show similarity in fundamental characters, 
such as the structure of the flowers and fruit, and usually 
also a similarity in habit, or general aspect. 

Familiar genera are the oaks, the pines, the asters, the golden- 
rods; or, among grasses, the blue-grasses and the wheat-grasses, the 
millets and the bromes. 

As genera do not exist in nature, but represent the 
taxonomist's ideas as to groups of related species, botanists 
may not agree as to the limits of genera. The size of 
genera, that is, the number of species included, is some- 
times a matter of convenience. Conservative botanists 
would probably not recognize Panicum and Paspalum as 
separate genera, when considering the generic characters 
only, but each group contains such a large number of 
species that the two have been kept distinct for conve- 
nience. Some species are so different from their nearest 
allies that they cannot be consistently grouped with 
other species. Such a species stands as the sole rep- 
resentative of its genus, and the genus to which it belongs 
is called a monotypic genus. It not infrequently happens 
that after a monotypic genus is established other species 
are discovered, which are assigned to it, and it ceases to 
be monotj^ic. In contrast with monotypic genera are 
others, such as Panicum, Andropogon and Poa, with hun- 
dreds of species. Large genera may sometimes be con- 
veniently divided into smaller groups, such as subgenera 
and sections. 

From a nomenclatorial standpoint the term monotj^jic is used 
to indicate genera with only one species at the original place of 
publication. Cook suggests the word haplotypic for such genera. 
(Amer. Nat. 48:311. 1914.) 



154 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

194. The grass family and its subdivisions. — The 

genera of plants are grouped into families, and these into 
orders and higher divisions of the vegetable kingdom. 
The grass family is called Poacese or Graminese, and this 
with the Cyperacese (sedges) constitute the order Poales 
or Glumiflorse. 

The term Poales is used for the order in the "North American 
Flora," the termination -ales being uniformly added to a generic 
stem to form the names of orders. Glumiflorae is lised by Engler 
and Prantl in their "Pflanzenfamilien." Glumaceae is used by Ben- 
tham and Hooker ("Genera Plantarum") as the name of the series 
that includes Eriocaulese, Centrolepideae, Restiacese, Cyperacese and 
Graminese. The classification here adopted is in the main that of 
Bentham and Hooker ("General Plantarum") and of Hackel 
("Pfianzenfamilien"). The latter author will be followed in the 
enumeration of the tribes. Although HackeFs classification is in 
some respects artificial, it is on the whole the most natural arrange- 
ment yet proposed. 

The family Poaceae has been divided for convenience 
into 2 series and 13 tribes. 

195. The 2 series of tribes. — Modern agrostologists 
usually divide the genera of grasses into 2 series. The 
first series Panicoidese (or Panicaceae), the more highly 
developed or modified, is characterized as follows: Spike- 
lets with 1 terminal perfect floret and often a staminate 
or neutral floret below; an articulation below the spikelet, 
sometimes in the pedicel, sometimes in the rachis, some- 
times at the base of a cluster of spikelets, the spikelets 
falling away at maturity singly or in groups, or with 
portions of the rachis; spikelets usually more or less 
dorsally compressed, rarely laterally compressed. The 
second series, Poseoidese, is characterized as follows: 
Spikelets with 1 to many florets, the imperfect ones 
when present usually being above; rachilla often artic- 



TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION 155 

ulated above the glumes; spikelets usually laterally 
compressed. 

There are exceptions to all these characters. In some 
cases the exceptional genera are clearly related to others 
that conform to the above definitions. Other genera are 
more or less anomalous and are tentatively placed in the 
category to which they seem most nearly related. In 
Isachne the lower floret is perfect and similar to the 
upper, but it is evidently allied to Panicum and hence is 
placed near that genus in the first series. Several genera, 
such as Sphenopholis, Spartina and Alopecurus, have an 
articulation below the spikelet so that the latter falls 
from the pedicel, in which respect they agree with the 
first series, but in most characters they agree with the 
second series, in which they are placed. In Phalaridese 
of Series II the imperfect florets are below the terminal 
perfect one. 

196. The tribes of grasses. — There are 6 tribes in the 
first series and 7 in the second. The following key to 
these tribes is not made to cover exceptional genera, since 
to do this for the sake of a comparatively few genera 
would make the keys unnecessarily complex. 

Series I 

A. Spikelets round or dorsally compressed; hilum 

short. 

B. Lemmas and palea very thin and hyaline, 

the glumes much thicker. 

c. Inflorescences monoecious, the staminate 

and pistillate flowers in different parts 

of the same plant Tribe 1. Mayde^ 

cc. Inflorescences not monoecious, usually a (Chap. 15). 

mixture of perfect and staminate or 

neutral spikelets Tribe 2. Andropogone^ 

BB. Lemmas and paleas membranaceous or (Chap. 16). 

thicker, not thin and hyaline. 
c. Lemmas thinner than the glumes. 



156 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

D. Spikelets falling off singly or in groups 
from a continuous rachis; the first 
glume usually larger than the second. 

Tribe 3. Nazie^ 
DD. Spikelets falling off singly from the (Par. 212). 

ultimate branches of a panicle; first 
glume smaller than the second. 

Tribe 4. Melinide^ 
cc. Lemmas thicker than the glumes, hard- (Par. 213). 

ened Tribe 5. Panics^ 

AA. Spikelets laterally compressed; hilum linear* (Chap. 17). 

Tribe 6. Oryze^ 

(Chap. 18). 

Series II 

A. Culms woody Tribe 13. Bambuse^ 

AA. Culms herbaceous. (Par. 270). 

B. Spikelets in spikes or spike-Hke racemes, 
c. Spikelets crowded on one side of the 

rachis Tribe 10. Chlorides 

cc. Spikelets on opposite sides of the rachis. (Chap. 22). 

Tribe 12. Horded 
BB. Spikelets in contracted or open panicles. (Chap. 24). 

c. Spikelets with 1 perfect floret. 

D. Perfect floret with 2 sterile lemmas 

below Tribe 7. Phalaride^ 

DD. Perfect floret soHtary, no sterile lemmas (Chap. 19). 

below Tribe 8. Agrostide^ 

cc. Spikelets with 2 or more florets. (Chap. 20). 

D. Lemmas awned from the back; glumes 
usuaUy longer than the first lemma. 

Tribe 9. Avene^e 
DD. Lemmas awned from the tip or awn- (Chap. 21). 

less Tribe 11. Festuce^ 

(Chap. 23). 



THE MORE IMPORTANT GENERA OF GRASSES 

197. Hackel recognizes over 300 genera of grasses, 
and some writers, including the author, recognize many 
more, probably 400 in all. Only a few of the more im- 
portant genera are described in the present work, the 
selection being based upon the size of the genus, or the 

* In Gray's "Manual" this tribe is placed in Series II (Gray, Man. ed. 7, p. 88. 
1908). 



TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION 157 

economic value of included species. Keys are given to all 
genera native or commonly cultivated in the United 
States. 

198. Characters used in classification. — The con- 
sensus of botanical opinion is that genetic relationships 
among phanerogams are best shown by the structure of 
the flowers. Grasses are no exception to this rule and 
hence the classification is based upon the structure of the 
spikelets. The preceding key indicates the characters 
used in classifying the tribes. The classification appears 
to be somewhat artificial, but nevertheless it brings to- 
gether in the same tribe genera that are evidently related. 
But it also in some cases, separates into different tribes 
genera that are closely related. Reference will be made 
to some of these cases again in the appropriate place. 

199. Phylogeny. — As to the phylogeny of the grasses, 
it is probable that the most primitive existing forms are 
those in which the spikelet consists of a series of flowers 
in the axils of herbaceous bracts. The simpler genera of 
Bambuseae, such as Arundinaria, probably represent the 
lower or more primitive forms. It must not be understood 
that this tribe is, as a whole, less developed than the other 
tribes. Some genera are highly developed. There is good 
ground for beheving, however, that the Bambusese arose 
from forms more primitive than those that gave rise to 
the other tribes. The Festuceae and Hordese probably come 
next in phylogenetic development, while the Andro- 
pogonese and Panicese are highly developed. The exact 
relationship of the various tribes and the smaller groups 
is, of course, for the present largely a matter of conjecture 
and individual opinion. Phylogenetic ideas are expressed 
by the grouping of forms rather than by attempting to 
trace lines of descent. We may group allied species into 



158 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

genera and allied genera into higher groups without com- 
mitting ourselves as to how the various groups came to 
be what they are. The modern tendency is toward a 
grouping of species in all large genera. Some of these 
groups are recognized under the formal titles of sub- 
genera, sections and subsections. But it is often con- 
venient to form smaller groups centering around well- 
known or widespread species. 

Ascherson and Grabner bring together closely allied species 
under the heading Gesammtart (Syn. Mit.-Eur. Fl.). In our recent 
revision of the North American Species of Panicum (Contr. U. S. 
Nat. Herb. 15) these minor groups or species were indicated by the 
plural of the leading species, e.g., the alUes of Panicum dichotomum 
were grouped under Dichotoma. 



CHAPTER XV 
Tribe I. MAYDE^E 

This tribe is scarcely more than a division of the next 
tribe, Andropogonese, from which it differs in the sepa- 
ration of the staminate and pistillate inflorescences. The 
structure of the spikelets in the 2 tribes is similar. 

Key to the Genera of Mayde^ 

A. Staminate and pistillate spikelets in separate 
inflorescences, the former in a terminal 
tassel, the latter in the axils of the leaves. 

B. Pistillate spikes distinct, articulated Euchl^na 

BB. Pistillate spikes grown together forming (Par. 201). 

an "ear" Zea (Par. 202). 

AA. Staminate and pistillate spikelets in separate 

portions of the same spike, the pistillate 

below. 

B. Spikes short, the 1- to 2-flowered pistillate 

portion inclosed in a bead-like sheathing 

bract Coix (Par. 203). 

BB. Spikes many-flowered, the pistillate portion 
breaking up into several 1-seeded joints; 

no bead-hke sheathing bract Tripsacum 

(Par. 200). 

200. Tripsacum L. — The terminal inflorescence con- 
sists usually of a cluster of spikes the lower portions of 
which are pistillate and the upper portions staminate. 
The pistillate portion consists of a series of joints which 
disarticulate at maturity forming bony cylindrical or 
angled seed-like parts made up of the thick axis and an 
imbedded spikelet. The spikelet consists of a hard first 
glume which closes the spikelet within the joint of the 
rachis, a thinner second glume, a sterile lemma with a 

(159) 



160 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



palea, and a fertile floret, the latter all hyaline. The 
staminate spikelets are in pairs on a slender rachis. The 
spikelet consists of 2 coriaceous glumes and 2 florets with 
stamens, the lemmas and paleas being hyaline. Besides 
the terminal inflorescence there are usually in the axils 
of the leaves others that may be reduced to a single spike. 
One species, T. dactyloides L., a coarse perennial found 
through eastern and southern United States, is an excel- 
lent forage grass, sometimes called gama-grass. A few 
other species are found in Mexico. 
201. Euchlaena Schrad.—Teo- 
sinte. The staminate flowers are 
in a terminal panicle while the 
pistillate are in spikes in the axils 
of the leaves. The staminate 
spikelets are similar to those of 
Tripsacum. The spike of pistillate 
spikelets breaks up at maturity 
into rhomboidal seed-like joints. 
The styles are very long and 
protrude from the top of the 
inclosing leaf -sheath. The best 
known species is E. mexicana 
Schrad. (Fig. 11), a native of 
Mexico. This is a coarse annual 
resembling corn, cultivated in the 
southern United States as a for- 
age plant, chiefly for green fodder. 
There are 1 or 2 other species in Mexico and Central 
America. A hybrid between Euchlaena and Tripsacum is 
described by Collins and Kempton. The pollen was fur- 
nished by a variety of Euchlaena from Durango, Mexico 
(Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 4: 114. 1914). 




Fig. 11. Euchlsena mexi- 
cana. Portion of plant reduced; 
a pistillate inflorescence, X ^, 
and 4 fertile spikelets X 1 (U. S. 
Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 
No. 20). 



MAYDE^ 161 

202. Zea L. — Indian corn, maize. This genus is 
represented only by the cultivated maize (Z. viays L.), 
and is not known in the wild state. There are several 
well-marked varieties, such as dent, pop and sweet, which 
are thought by some to be distinct species. Like the pre- 
ceding genus, the staminate inflorescence is separate from 
the pistillate. The former is a terminal panicle called the 
tassel and the latter, a thick spike surrounded by leafy 
bracts or husks, is called the ear. The staminate spikelets 
are in pairs on the rachis, 1 sessile and the other pediceled, 
each 2-flowered, the thin lemmas and paleas being shorter 
than the firm glumes. The ear consists of several close 
rows of pistillate spikelets upon a greatly thickened axis, 
the cob. The spikelet consists of 2 glumes, a sterile lemma 
with a small palea, and a fertile lemma and palea. All 
these bracts remain at the base of the mature grain as 
coriaceous chaff on the cob. The numerous single styles 
protrude from the ear and form the ''silk." There is a 
potential ear in every leaf-axil but usually only one de- 
velops into a perfect ear. In one variety, called pod-corn, 
each kernel is enveloped in the elongated floral bracts. 

There has been much speculation as to the origin of corn. Some 
have thought that it has been developed from Teosinte, others that 
the original wild form has become extinct. It is more likely that it is 
a hybrid between Teosinte and an unknown or extinct species re- 
sembling pod-corn. (Collins "The Origin of Maize," Journ. Wash. 
Acad. Sci. 2:520. 1912.) 

Corn has been cultivated from prehistoric times by 
the early races of American aborigines, from Peru to 
middle North America, and is now cultivated throughout 
the world in warmer regions for food for man and do- 
mestic animals. The chief varieties are dent, the common 
commercial field variety, flint, formerly common in the 

K 



162 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



northern states, sweet and pop. A starchy variety called 
flour corn is grown in South America and pod-corn is 

occasionally cultivated as 
a curiosity. A form with 
variegated leaves is culti- 
vated in gardens for orna- 
ment. (For further notes 
classification see Mont- 
gomery, ''The Com Crops'' 
15. 1913.) 

203. Coix L.— Only 1 species 
is common, the Job's-tears (C 
lacryma-Jobi L.) (Fig. 12), 
which is cultivated for orna- 
ment and escaped as a weed in 
the tropics. It is a handsome 
broad-leaved species, reaching a 
height of 4 to 6 feet. The 
inflorescences are several on 
each plant, each being at the 
end of a long peduncle on the end 
of which is an urn-shaped indurated 
bead-like bract, supporting the base 
of the simple spike, pistillate at base 
and staminate above. The pistillate 
portion consists of 1 fertile spikelet 
with 1 or 2 sterile ones, inclosed in 
the urn-shaped bract, the 2-cleft 
style and the tips of the sterile spike- 
lets protruding through the open- 
lacryma- ing at the top. The glumes of the 

:!e show- '^ ^ 

fertile spikelet are broad, hyaline 
with membranaceous tips, the lemmas 




Fig. 12. Coix 
Jobi. Inflorescence 
ing several pistillate beads, 
the staminate spikes pro- 
truding, xVz- 



MAYDE^ 163 

and palea delicately hyaline. The staminate upper por- 
tion of the inflorescence also protrudes from the opening 
for an inch or two. This consists of a few spikelets in 
pairs, the structure being similar to that described above 
for the other genera. At maturity the staminate portion 
of the inflorescence disarticulates, the sheathing bract 
containing the seed forms an ivory- like ovoid fruit, from 
white to bluish gray in color, that separates by a joint 
from the peduncle. These fruits are used as beads for 
ornament. 



CHAPTER XVI 
Tribe II. ANDROPOGONEtE 

This great tribe is represented in the warmer regions 
of both hemispheres but is absent from the arctic and 
alpine regions and is poorly represented in the cooler 
temperate regions. The spikelets are usually arranged in 
pairs at each joint of a spike-like raceme, 1 sessile, the 
other pedicelled. The rachis of the raceme is usually 
articulated and breaks up at maturity into joints. The 
racemes are often woolly with long hairs and may be 
arranged in a compound inflorescence. Sometimes the 
racemes are reduced to the terminal joint of 3 spikelets, 
in which case the compound inflorescence is a panicle, 
as in Johnson-grass. The spikelets nearly always consist 
of 2 glumes, at least 1 of which is firm or indurated, a 
sterile lemma, and a terminal fertile floret. The bracts 
above the glumes are usually thin and hyaline. The fertile 
lemma often bears a bent or twisted awn. Grasses of this 
kind are commonly abundant on savannas and plains in 
the tropics and in prairie regions of the United States, and 
many species are useful forage grasses. There are about 
50 genera in the tribe but only a few contain species of 
interest to Americans. Of the 5 sub-tribes, only 2 will be 
mentioned here. 

Key to the Genera of Andropogone^ 

A. Axis of the spike glabrous, much thickened, 
with excavations holding the spikelets; fertile 
lemma awnless. 

(164) 



ANDROPOGONEM 165 

B. First glume flattened or somewhat convex. 

Florida Manisuris. 

BB. First glume hard and globular, pitted. 

Florida to Arizona Rytilix. 

A.. Axis of the spike or raceme hairy, not exca- 
vated nor greatly thickened; fertile lemma 
usually awned. 
B. Spikeiets all alike. 

c. Axis of racemes continuous. 

D. Racemes in a narrow spike-like panicle; 

spikeiets awnless. Florida Imperata. 

DD. Racemes in a broad fan-shaped panicle; 

spikeiets awned Miscanthus 

cc. Axis of racemes breaking up into joints; (Par. 204). 
racemes in a much-branched panicle on 
a main axis. 

D. Spikeiets awned Erianthus 

(Par. 206). 

DD. Spikeiets awnless Saccharum 

BB. Spikeiets not all alike, one of the pair perfect, (Par. 205). 

the other staminate, neutral or reduced to 
a pedicel. 
c. Fertile spikelet pedicelled, with a long 
plumose awn; sterile spikelet nearly 

sessile, awnless Trachypogon. 

cc. Fertile spikelet sessile; sterile spikelet 
pedicelled; axis articulate. 
D. Spikeiets awnless; raceme sohtary, ter- 
minating the culm Elionurus. 

DD. Spikeiets awned; racemes 1 or more 
from each sheathing bract but not 
solitary on the culms; sometimes re- 
duced to the terminal joint of 3 spike- 
lets and borne in panicles. 
E. Sessile spikeiets all ahke in the same 
raceme. 

F. Racemes several-flowered Andropogon 

FF. Racemes reduced to 1 or 2 joints, (Par. 208). 

these in panicles. 

G Awn several inches long Chrysopogon. 

GG. A^NTi short. 

H. Plants perennial, without rhi- 
zomes; sterile spikelet re- 
duced to a pedicel Sorghastrum. 

HH. Plants perennial, with rhi- 
zomes, or annual; sterile 

spikeiets staminate Holcus 

EE. Sessile spikeiets at the base of the (Par. 210). 

spike different from the others. 



166 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



F. Racemes solitary at the ends of the 

branches Heteropogon. 

FF. Racemes in pairs from a sheathing 

bract, these in panicles Cymbopogon 

(Par. 209). 

SuBTRiBE SACCHARE.E 

Spikelets perfect, all ahke. The genera here mentioned have 
large compound inflorescences of woolly racemes. 



204. Miscanthus Anderss. — Tall coarse perennials 
with large panicles, axis of the racemes not articulated. 
One species^ M. sinensis Anderss. {Eulalia japonica Trin.) 
(Fig. 13), a native of eastern Asia, is cultivated for orna- 
ment. This grass grows in large bunches, with numerous 
narrow leaves, 2 to 4 feet long, tapering to a slender point, 
slender upright flower-stalks 4 to 6 feet high bearing a 
fan -shaped cluster of woolly 
spikes 6 to 12 inches long. There 
are 3 varieties in cultivation : var. 
l^^ variegatus, with striped leaves; 
var. zehrinus, with banded leaves ; 
and var. gracillimus with leaves 
much narrower than in the other 
forms. Two other species are 
occasionally cultivated, — M. sac- 
charifer Benth., with nearly or 
quite awnless spikelets, and M. 
nepalensis Hack. (Himalaya fairy- 
grass), with spikelets one-fourth 
as long as the brown involucral 
hairs. 

205. Saccharum L. — The best- 

FiG. 13. Miscanthus sinensis. , • • ii 

Plant much reduced, spikelet, kuOWU SpCClCS IS the SUgar-CaUC 
X3. (U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. / o -m • T ^ /T?4^ 1/1^ o +oU 

Agrost., Bull. 20.) {S. ojfficmarum L.) {r\g. 14;, a tall 




ANDROPOGONE^ 



167 



coarse grass with broad blades and a large woolly plume- 
like panicle as much as 2 feet long. The unawned spike- 
lets are similar to those of the preceding genus, but the 
axis of the racemes is articu- 
lated. The native country of 
sugar-cane is not known, but it 
is now cultivated in all tropical 
countries. Although it produces 
seed occasionally it is propa- 
gated by cuttings of the stem. 

206. Erianthus Michx. — The 
inflorescence resembles that of 
the preceding genus, but the 
spikelets are awned. One species 
(E. RavenncB Beauv.), a native 
of the Mediterranean region, is 
cultivated for ornament under 
the name of plume-grass, wool- 
grass, Ravenna-grass, or hardy 

pampas-grass. It is a tall peren- Fig. U. Saccharum officinarum. 
. , . , 111 1 Plant much reduced; three joints 

nial With narrow blades and a oftherachis (a),aspikeiet (6),and 

, ,., . , 1 r^ aflower(c), X3. (U.S.Dept. Agr., 

plume-like panicle, as much as 2 div. Agroat., BuU. 20.) 
feet long. 

SuBTRiBE EUANDROPOGONE^ 




207. Spikelets not all alike, the sessile one of each pair 
fertile, the pedicelled sterile, sometimes reduced to the 
pedicel. The genera described below are included by 
some authors as sub-genera of the large genus Andro- 
pogon. The axis of the raceme is articulated. The 
awn is very large and strong in some genera (Hetero- 
pogon, Chrysopogon), is geniculate and twisted, and 
bears at the base of the spikelet a strong sharp hairy 



168 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 




Fig. 15. Erianthus divaricatus. Plant reduced; spikelet, the two glumes, and 
the fertile lemma with lower portion of awn, X3; flower, X5. 



ANDROPOGONEjE 



169 



callus, the whole much resembling the awned fruit of 
Stiya spartea. 

208. Andropogon L. — Sessile spike- 
lets all alike in more or less elongated 
racemes. The racemes may be single or 
in pairs, or rarely 3 or 4 from a sheath- 
ing bract, or they may be in naked 
panicles. The species are usually coarse 
perennials that inhabit prairies, hills, 
pine-barrens and other dry places. Some 
species are important native forage 
grasses. Two of these are common on 
the prairies of the Mississippi Valley, 
the little bluestem (A. scoparius Michx.) 
and the big bluestem {A. f meatus Muhl.) 
(Fig. 16). The first species has solitary 
racemes from each bract or spathe, and 
is a representative of the subgenus 
Schizachyrium. The other has 3 or 4 
racemes in a naked digitate cluster. A 
common but less valuable species, the 
broom-sedge {A. virginicus L.), is found 
in the Atlantic states on sterile soil. 
This large genus of hundreds of species 
is spread over the warmer regions of 
both hemispheres. 

209. Cymbopogon Spreng. — This 
genus resembles Andropogon in having 
racemes in pairs from sheathing bracts, 
but differs in that 1 or 2 of the lower- Fig. ig. Andropo- 
most pairs of spikelets of at least 1 of fe^l^'x^!' YS 
the racemes, are both staminate. In the firtne'sSkeiettdow 
economic species the pairs of racemes sSkeiet^abov^^xS^"^ 




170 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

are arranged in a large compound panicle. Several species 
of this genus* furnish volatile essential oils and some are 
cultivated for this purpose. The most common cultivated 
species, both from India, are citronella-grass, C, Nardus 
(L.) Rendle, and lemon-grass, C. citratus (DC.) Stapf. 

210. Holcus L. — Racemes reduced to the terminal 
joint which consists of a fertile spikelet and a pair of 
staminate spikelets, these racemes or groups arranged in 
panicles. One species, H. halepensis L. (Fig. 17), the well- 
known Johnson-grass, a native of the Old World, is now 
naturalized in America. This is a valuable forage-grass 
but on account of its tendency to spread in cultivated 
fields and the difficulty with which it is eradicated it can- 
not be recommended. It is a coarse perennial with creep- 
ing rhizomes. The other important species of this genus is 
sorghum (H. Sorghum L.), a tall coarse annual, not found 
in the wild state but thought to be derived from the pre- 
ceding species. There are many varieties cultivated for 
various purposes, f the sugar sorghum, or saccharine sor- 
ghum, for its juice, from which sugar and syrup are ob- 
tained, the forage sorghum, often called "cane" on the 
Great Plains, grown for forage, kafir, grown for forage 
and the seed, broom-corn for the stiff branches of the 
inflorescence, and durra, milo, Egyptian corn, etc., for 
forage and seed. Many other varieties are cultivated in 
Africa and Asia. In some countries it is called millet. 

The genus Holcus has been knowTi as Sorghum and 
has been included by many under Andropogon. The 
names of the 2 species mentioned appear in books as 
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. or Andropogon halepensis (L.) 

*For a discussion of this subject, see O. Stapf, "Oil Grasses of India and 
Ceylon" (Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 8: 297. 1906). 

tSee Ball, "History and Distribution of Sorghum" (U. S. Dept. Agric. Bur. 
PI. Ind. Bulletin No. 175. 1910). 



ANDROPOGONE^ 



171 



Brot. for the first and Sorghum 
vulgar e Pers. or Andropogon 
Sorghum (L.) Brot. for the 
second. 

H. haUpensis L. Johnson-grass. 
Culms usually 3 to 5 feet tall, 
erect, smooth, often glaucous, pro- 
ducing strong creeping rhizomes; 
sheaths smooth; Ugule membra- 
naceous, about 2 mm. long, the 
upper half a cihate fringe; blades 
smooth or nearly so, somewhat 
scabrous on the margins, 1 to 3 feet 
long, mostly K to 3^ inch wide, 
tapering to a fine point, the white 
midrib conspicuous; panicle open 
and spreading, 6 inches to 2 feet 
long, usually more or less reddish 
or purple, the branches 2 to 4 
together, naked below, pubescent 
at the base; spikelets somewhat 
crowded along the upper part of 
the branches, in pairs or the termi- 
nal in 3's, 1 sessile and fertile and 
1 or 2 pediceled and staminate; 
fertile spikelet about 5 mm. long, 
flattened dorsaUy, elliptical or ovate- 
lanceolate, indistinctly nerved, firm 
and coriaceous, at first pubes- 
cent but later becoming smooth 



Fig. 17. Holcus halepensis. Inflorescence 
and rhizomes, X H, a terminal fertile spike- 
let with two staminate spikelets, X3. 




172 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

and shining on the exposed parts; staminate spikelets more slender, 
and slightly longer than the sessile, distinctly nerved, membra- 
naceous, the pedicel about half as long as the sessile spikelet, ciliate. 
The staminate spikelets disarticulate early so that the mature fertile 
spikelets show only the 1 or 2 ciliate pedicels at the back. The whole 
plant is frequently subject to a disease which produces purple spots 
on the stem and leaves. This is also observed in Holcus Sorghum. 

211. Classification of the sorghums. — Ball (loc. cit.) 
classifies the sorghums as follows : 

A. Pith juicy. 

B. Juice abundant and very sweet Sorgo. 

BB. Juice scanty, slightly sweet to subacid. 

c. Panicles cylindrical; peduncles erect; spike- 
lets 3 to 4 mm. wide; lemmas awnless. .Kafir. 
cc. Panicles ovate; peduncle mostly inclined, 
often recurved; spikelets 4.5 to 6 mm. 

wide; lemmas awned Milo. 

AA. Pith dry. 

B. Panicle lax, 25 to 70 cm. long. . . 

c. Rachis less than one-fifth as long as 
the panicle; panicle umbelliform, the 

branches greatly elongated Broom-Corn. 

cc. Rachis more than two-thirds as long as 
the panicle. 
D. Panicle conical, the branches strongly 

drooping Shallu. 

DD. Panicle oval or obovate, the branches 

spreading Kowliang. 

BB. Panicle compact, 10 to 25 cm. long. 

c. Spikelets elliptic-oval or obovate, 2.5 to 

3.5 mm. wide Kowliang. 

cc. Spikelets broadly obovate, 4.5 to 6 mm. 
wide. 
D. Glumes gray or greenish, not wrinkled, 
densely pubescent; seeds strongly 

flattened Durra. 

DD. Glumes deep brown or black, trans- 
versely wrinkled, thinly pubescent; 
seeds sUghtly flattened Milo. 

Sudan-grass resembles Johnson-grass in habit but is 
an annual, entirely devoid of rootstocks. By Piper it is 
referred to Sorghum as a variety. Sudan-grass promises 



ANDROPOaONE^ 173 

to be of value as a forage crop in the southern states. 
Tunis-grass, resembling Sudan-grass, is another variety 
of the sorghum. (See, ''Some New Grasses for the South," 
Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. 1912.) 

Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash, a species of a related 
genus, is a common constituent of native meadows over 
the same region that Andropogon furcatus is found. It is 
a tall slender perennial with bronze-colored panicles with 
brilliant yellow anthers. 

Tribe III. NAZIE^ (ZOYSIEtE) 

212. This is an unimportant tribe of about a dozen 
small genera. The spikelets are similar to those of Andro- 
pogonese but having membranaceous awnless instead of 
hyahne usually awned lemmas, are single or in groups and 
fall entire from the continuous rachis. In the genera found 
in the United States the spikelets are in groups. 

Key to Genera of Nazie^ 

A. Second glume beset with hooked spines Nazia. 

AA. Second glume without hooked spines. 

B. Groups of spikelets spreading or drooping 

along one side of the main axis ^gopogon. 

BB. Groups of spikelets erect, not secund. 

c. Plants stoloniferous Hilaria. 

cc. Plants not stoloniferous Pleuraphis. 

The most important genus is Hilaria, with the species 
H. cenchroides H.B.K. (Fig. 18), curly mesquite. This 
grass is common on the uplands of Texas and Mexico 
where it is an important range-grass. It resembles buf- 
falo-grass in being short, in producing stolons and in 
forming a sod, and by stockmen is often confused with 
that grass. In curly mesquite, the spikelets are in clus- 
ters of 3, the groups borne on the upright axis forming 



174 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 




Fig. 18. Hilaria cenchroides. Plant reduced; group of spikelets, 
a staminate spikelet, a pistillate spikelet, X5. (U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Div. Agrost., Bull. 20.) 



NAZIEM—MELINIDEM 1 75 

a short spike. The allied genus Pleuraphis furnishes a 
few important forage grasses in the Southwest. Pleura- 
phis Jamesi Torr., is called galleta in New Mexico, a 
name which is applied in California to P. rigida Thurb. 

Other grasses of interest belonging to this tribe are 
Nazia, one species of which, N. aliena (Spreng.) Scribn. 
extends from the tropics into Arizona, and Osterdamia 
(Zoysia), one species of which 0. matrella (L.) Kuntze 
{Zoysia pungens Willd.), the Japanese or Korean lawn- 
grass is occasionally cultivated in California, and along 
the seacoast of the south Atlantic states. The first 
mentioned genus is peculiar in that the fascicles of 3 to 5 
spikelets form a bur, the second glume of each spikelet 
being provided with hooked spines. In Osterdamia the 
spikelets are single instead of in groups. 

Tribe IV. MELINIDE^ (TRISTEGINE^) 

213. This is a small tribe of about 8 genera, none of 
which is represented in the United States. The spikelets 
are borne singly in panicled racemes with a continuous 
axis. The most important genus is Arundinella, reed-like 
grasses, several species of which are found in tropical 
America. 



CHAPTER XVII 
Tkibe V. PANICEiE 

Spikelets with 1 terminal perfect floret and astaminate 
or neutral floret below; fertile lemma firmer than the 
glumes, often chartaceous; spikelets jointed on the pedicel 
below the glumes. This large and important tribe is, like 
Andropogoneae, found mostly in the tropics and warm 
regions, but is well represented throughout the United 
States, especially in the southern portion. The first glume 
is usually absent in the large genus Paspalum and in a 
few other genera, and in Reimarochloa and in certain spe- 
cies of Paspalum the second glume also is absent. In 
Eriochloa the first glume is reduced to a minute ridge 
about the swollen ring-like lower joint of the rachilla. In 
Isachne the lower flower is perfect like the upper. In this 
tribe the spikelets are usually unawned but the glumes 
are awned in Echinochloa, Oplismenus and Chsetium, and 
the lemma in Tricholsena. What appear in some genera to 
be awns are bristle-like branchlets. In Chsetochloa there 
are 1 or more of these below all or some of the spikelets, the 
bristles remaining after the fall of the spikelets. In Penni- 
setum there is an involucre of bristles (branchlets) sur- 
rounding the base of a cluster of spikelets, the bristles 
being deciduous with the cluster. In Cenchrus the bris- 
tles are retrorsely barbed and fused into a mass, forming 
a bur around the spikelets. An Australian genus, Spinifex, 
is dioecious and Olyra is monoecious. The fruit of Pani- 
cum and of several other genera is a seed-like body con- 

(176) 



PANICE^ 177 

sisting of the chartaceous fertile lemma and palea inclos- 
ing a caryopsis the covering of which is thin. The genus 
Amphicarpon is peculiar in having 2 kinds of spikelets, 
ordinary spikelets in a terminal panicle, and underground 
cleistogamous spikelets borne on short subterranean 
branches that appear like rhizomes. Only the latter bear 

seed. 

Key to the Genera of Panice^e 

A. Spikelets not all alike. 

B. Spikelets all perfect, but those of the aerial 
panicle not perfecting grains; the fruitful 
spikelets cleistogamous, borne on sub- 
terranean branches. Florida to New Jersey.AMPHiCARPON. 
BB. Spikelets not all perfect, the inflorescence 
bearing pistillate spikelets above and 
staminate spikelets below; panicles ter- 
minating the branches; blades broad, 

elhptical. Florida Olyra, 

AA. Spikelets all alike. 

B. Spikelets sunken in the cavities of the 

flattened corky axis Stenotaphrum 

BB. Spikelets not sunken in the rachis. (Par. 223). 

c. Spikelets subtended or surrounded by 1 to 
many bristles (sterile branchlets), these 
distinct or more or less connate, forming 
an involucre. 
D. Bristles persistent, spikelets deciduous. . Ch^tochloa 
DD. Bristles falhng with the spikelets at (Par. 220). 

maturity. 
E. Bristles not united at base, usually 

slender, often plumose Pennisetum 

EE. Bristles more or less united into a bur- (Par. 221). 

like involucre Cenchrus 

cc. Spikelets not subtended by bristles. (Par, 222). 

D. Fruit cartilaginous-indurated, not rigid, 

papillose, usually dark-colored, the 

lemma with more or less prominent 

white hyaline margins not inrolled. 

E. Fruiting lemma boat-shaped, the 

hyaline margins narrow. Florida 

to Louisiana Anth^enantia 

EE. Fruiting lemma convex, the hyaline 
margins broad. 
F. Fruit lanceolate-acuminate; second 
glume and sterile lemma long- 
silky. Florida to Arizona Valota. 

L 



178 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

FF. Fruit elliptic; pubescence short or 
none. 
G. Inflorescence of slender racemes, 
more or less digitately ar- 
ranged Syntherisma 

(Par. 216). 
GG. Inflorescence a capillary panicle.. Leptoloma. 
DD. Fruit indurated, rigid (or if thin, not 
hyaline-margined) , 
E. Spikelets (or the primary one of a 
pair) placed with the back of the 
fruit turned away from the rachis, 
usually sohtary (not in pairs). 
F. First glume and the rachilla joint 
forming a swollen ring-hke caUus 

below the spikelet Eriochloa. 

FF. First glume present or wanting but 
no ring-Uke callus below the 
spikelet. 
G. First glume present; racemes 

racemose along the main axis . . Brachiaria. 
GG. First glume wanting; racemes 

digitate or subdigitate Axonopus 

EE. Spikelets placed with the back of the (Par. 215). 

fruit turned toward the rachis of 
of the spike-like racemes, or pedicel- 
late in panicles. 
F. Fruit long-acuminate, scarcely in- 
durated; both glumes wanting; 
spikelets sessile, solitary in spike- 
hke racemes, these reflexed or 
verticillate at maturity. Florida, 

rare Reimarochloa. 

FF. Fruit not long-acuminate, indurated. 

G. First glume typically wanting; 

spikelets plano-convex, subses- 

sile in spike-like racemes Paspalum 

GG. First glume present; spikelets (Par. 214). 

usually in panicles. 
H. Glumes and lemmas unawned. 
I. Second glume inflated-sac- 
cate, this and the sterile 
lemma much exceeding the 

stipitate fruit Sacciolepis. 

II. Second glume not inflated- 
saccate. 
J. Culms (in our species) 
woody; fruit with a tuft 
of down at apex. Florida. Lasiacis. 



PANICS^ 



179 



jj. Culms herbaceous. Panicum 
HH. Glumes or lemmas (Par. 217). 
a w n e d (or awn- 
tipped in Echino- 
chloa colonum). 
I. Inflorescence panicu- 
late; spikelets 
silky. Introduced 

in Florida Trichol^na 

II. Inflorescence of uni- (Par. 219). 
lateral racemes 
along a common 
axis. 
J. Glumes 2-lobed, 
awned from be- 
tween the lobes; 
blades broad and 
thin, lanceolate. 

Florida Oplismenus. 

JJ. Glumes awned 

from the tip . . . Echinochloa 
(Par. 218). 

214. Paspalum L. — A large genus of 
probably 200 species, well represented in 
the Gulf and south Atlantic states. It can 
be easily distinguished by the plano-convex 
spikelets in spike-like racemes. There are 
comparatively few species of economic 
importance. They are almost entirely 
absent from the grazing regions of the 
central and western United States, and in 
the southeastern states do not form an 
important constituent of grazing areas, 
being mostly inhabitants of wet or sandy 
soil and not often gregarious. An attempt 
was made, but with little success, to intro- 
duce into cultivation P. dilatatum Poir. 
(Fig. 19) , under the name of water-grass. In 
the savannas of Central America certain species, such as 
P. notatum Fliigge and P. minus Vasey, are important. 




Fig. 19. Paspa- 
lum dilatatum. 
Inflorescence, 
XH. spike let, 
X5. 



180 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



215. Axonopus Beauv. — By many authorities this 
group has been included in the genus Paspalum, but it 
forms a distinct natural group. Several species are 
found in tropical America but only 
2 extend as far north as the United 
States. One of these, A . compressus 
(Swartz) Beauv., is the carpet-grass 
of the Gulf States, where it is an 
important grazing-grass and also a 
lawn-grass. It is a stolonifer- 
ous perennial with flattened 
stems, comparatively short, 
broadly linear, abruptly 
pointed blades, and slender 
spikes more or less digitate or 
clustered at the summit of the 
stem. {Anastrophus Schrad.) 

216. Syntherisma Walt. — 
This distinct group is con- 
sidered by some to be a sec- 
tion of Panicum. Perennial or 
annual grasses with slender 
mostly digitate spike -like 
racemes. The perennial species 
are natives of the southern 
United States and southward 
and are of little importance. 
Most of the an- 
nuals are intro- 
duced from 
Europe and are 
troublesome 

Fig. 20. Syntherisma sanguinalia. Plant, XK;two -. ^^ 

views of spikelet, X5. WCeGS. Une 




PANICS^ 181 

species in particular, S. sanguinalis, is a well-known weed 
under the name of crab-grass. This and S. ischcemum 
are troublesome weeds in lawns. Being annuals, they die 
out and leave unsightly brown patches. Crab-grass is 
often utilized for hay in the southern states. (Digi- 
taria Hall.) 

Syntherisma sanguinalis (L.) Dulac. (Fig. 20). Crab-grass. 
Crop-grass. Annual; culms becoming much branched at base, 
decumbent or prostrate and rooting at the nodes, the flowering 
branches ascending, sometimes as much as 3 or 4 feet long; sheaths 
hirsute, with hairs arising from papillae, sometimes nearly glabrous 
except near the nodes; ligule about 1 mm. long, thin and membra- 
naceous, blades flat and thin, more or less hirsute like the sheaths, 2 
to 6 inches long and as much as 3^ inch wide; panicle consisting of 
few to several slender spikes, 3 to 6 inches long, a few digitate at 
the summit of the culm, with usually several others below in a more 
or less distinct whorl; rachis flat, winged on the margins, about 1 
mm. wide, bearing on one side the appressed crowded spikelets, 
these in pairs, one nearly sessile, the other with a sharply triangular 
pedicel about half as long as the spikelet; spikelets flattened dor- 
sally, elliptical-lanceolate, about 3 mm. long, the first glume small, 
nerveless, about 3^ mm. long, the second glume lying next to the 
axis, narrow, about half as long as the spikelet, appressed-villous, 
the sterile lemma distinctly 3-nerved, as long as the spikelet, the 
lateral nerves more or less ciliate-fringed. The plant is often pur- 
plish tinged, and the species is variable in size and habit accord- 
ingly as it grows in rich or poor soil, in the open or among other 
plants. 

A related species, S. ischaemum (Schreb.) Nash (Digitaria 
humifusa Pers.; Syntherisma linearis Nash; S. glabrum Schrad.), 
is common in the eastern United States. This species can be dis- 
tinguished from the preceding by its being glabrous or nearly so, 
by the smaller spikelets, and by the absence of the first glume. 

217. Panicum L. — This large genus of probably 400 
species is distributed throughout all warm regions. The 
spikelets are usually arranged in panicles. They consist of 



182 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



2 glumes and a sterile lemma, all herbaceous, and 1 
indurated fertile lemma and palea. The sterile lemma may 
contain a staminate flower. The subgenus Dichanthelium, 

confined to America, 
with its center of dis- 
tribution in the south- 
eastern states, includes 
over 100 species. This 
group is peculiar in 
having simple vernal 
culms with terminal 
spreading panicles, 
the vernal phase usu- 
ally very distinct from 
the later branched or 
autumnal phase in which the 
panicles are much reduced 
and often included in the 
sheaths. The autumnal spike- 
lets are cleistogamous and 
fertile while the vernal spike- 
lets appear to be usually 
unfruitful. Despite the great 
number of species in the 
genus Panicum, few are of 
ecomonic importance. One 
species, P. miliaceum L. 
(Fig. 21), proso millet or 
broom-corn millet, is culti- 
vated in Europe for the grain 
which is used for food, and 
is sparingly cultivated in this 
country for fodder. It is an 




Fig. 21 
miliaceum. Inflores- 

cence, X%; spikeletand 
fruit (fertile lemma and 
palea), X7. 



PANICE^ 



183 



annual with a drooping panicle. Para-grass (P. harhinode 
Trin.), a Brazilian grass much cultivated for forage in the 
American tropics, is sparingly grown in the southern 
parts of Florida and Texas. It is a coarse grass, with 
stolons several feet in length, strongly 
bearded nodes, and an inflorescence of 
several spike-like racemes racemosely 
arranged. Guinea -grass (P. maximum 
Jacq.) is an African grass, also much 
grown in the tropics for forage. It is an 
erect bunch-grass, as much as 8 feet high, 
with a large spreading panicle. Guinea- 
grass is too susceptible to frost for culti- 
vation in the United States except in 
southern Florida. Texas millet, or Colo- 
rado-grass, is P. texanum Buckl., a native 
of the Colorado River valley in Texas 
(Par. 62). Panicum hulhosum H. B. K., 
of the Southwest, produces well-marked 
corms. 

218. Echinochloa Beauv. — A small 
genus that is included by some as a 
section of Panicum. The spikelets are 
as in Panicum, but the sterile lemma 
and usually the second glume are 
awned, often conspicuously so. The 
fruit is pointed and the palea is free at 
the summit. The spikelets are in short 
racemes, these racemosely arranged. 
All the species are annuals. One 
species, barnyard-grass, E. Crus-galli 
(L.) Beauv., is a common weed in fig. 22. Echinochloa fm- 

, ■, I ii« , 1 Mi mentacea. Inflorescence, 

waste places and cultivated soil. A x 3^, spike let, x 5. 




184 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



closely allied species, E. frmnentacea (Roxb.) Link (Fig. 
22), is cultivated for forage under the name billion-dollar- 
grass. This and E. colonum (L.) Link are cultivated in 
India for the seed, which is used for food. 

219. Tricholaena Schrad. — A small genus 
of African grasses, one of which has been 
introduced into the American tropics. 
Spikelets in panicles, very hairy. Tricho- 
Icena rosea Nees has given promise of value 
as a meadow-grass on the dry pine lands 
of Florida. It is there called Natal-grass 
and, incorrectly, redtop. Natal-grass is an 
erect perennial, 2 to 3 feet high, with a 
loose panicle of pink or rosy silky spike- 
lets. It is said to furnish 4 or 5 cuttings 
of hay in a season. This grass may be 
grown from seed or by setting out divisions 
of the root or crown. 

220. Chaetochloa Scribn. — A small 
genus of annuals or perennials, the spike- 
lets in narrow often spike-like panicles, 
interspersed with bristles. Two annual 
European species with cylindrical spike- 
like panicles are common weeds in the 
eastern half of the United States. One of 
them, yellow foxtail, C. lutescens (Weigel) 

Fig '>3 Chsto- ^^^^^^ (^^S- ^3) , has yellow spikes and 5 or 
chioa lutescens In- more brlstlcs bclow each spikelet; the 

norescence, XH; \ 

teS\Siues x5' ^^^^^f grceu foxtail, C. viridis (L.) Scribn., 
has green spikes and only 1 to 3 bristles 
below each spikelet. Another species, C. italica, closely 
allied to the latter, is commonly cultivated as millet or 
Hungarian grass. This has large heads, or spikes, which 



PANICEM 



185 



in some varieties are compound and more or 
less lobed. In this country millet is grown 
for forage but in some 
parts of the Old World 
the seed is used for 
human food. (Setaria 
Beauv.) 

Chaetochloa italica (L.) 
Scribn. {Setaria italica Beauv. ; 
Panicum italicum L.) (Figs. 
24 and 25). MiUet. Foxtail 
millet. Hungarian grass. 
Annual; culms erect, simple 
or nearly so, 2 to 4 feet high, 
or sometimes larger, glabrous 
or scabrous below the pani- 
cle; sheaths glabrous, ciliate 
on the margins and pubes- 
cent at the collar; ligule a 
densely ciliate ring 1 to 2 
mm. long; blades flat, sea- 1' 

brous, narrowed below and toward | 

the apex, 6 to 18 inches long, as Fig. 24. Chse- 
much as an inch wide; panicle g^^l^-j^^^^^^^^^ 
dense, cylindrical, erect or in the Inflorescence, 
lf|//jf///llj/ larger forms drooping at the apex, 
\\\u\fM from an inch or two to as much as a foot in 
length and from 3^ inch to 2 inches in diameter, 
continuous or lobed and interrupted, yellow or 
purple, bearing bristles as long as the spikelets or 
much exceeding them; rachis and branches villous; 
spikelets about 3 mm. long, the bristles from 1 
to several times the length of the spikelet, the first 
glume ovate, 3-nerved, about 1 mm. long, the 
second glume a little shorter than the spikelet, 
Fig. 25. Chseto- 7_nerved, the sterile lemma similar to the second 

chloa itaiica, com- ' 

mon millet. Inflor- glume, as long as the spikelet; fruit easily dis- 



escence, X K, fruit, 
X5. 



articulating above the sterile lemma, round on one 



186 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



Fig. 26. Pen- 
nisetum glaucum. 
Inflorescence, XM; 
spikelet with invo- 
lucre of bristles, X5. 



side, flattened on the other, straw-colored, red or brown, 
smooth, very minutely and rather faintly cross-wrinkled. 
There are many varieties differing in the length and 
color of the bristles, in the color of the seed or fruit and 
in the size and lobing of the panicle or head. The name 
Hungarian grass is given to the form with small purple 
heads. 

221. Pennisetum Pers. — In this genus the 
spikelets, single or in groups, are surrounded by 
bristles as in Cenchrus but the bristles are 
distinct, and are often unequal in length or 
plumose. The inflorescence is a spike or raceme. 
The most important species of the genus is the 
pearl millet, P. glaucum (L.) R. 
Br. (Fig. 26); P. americanum (L.) 
Schum.; Penicillaria spicata Willd.; 
P. typhoideum Rich.). This is a tall 
coarse annual with 
broad blades like sor- 
ghum and a close cylin- 
drical spike about a 
foot long and an inch 
or less in thickness. At 
maturity the smooth and shining ripened 
caryopsis bursts through the lemma and 
palea. Pearl millet is grown in Africa for 
food and to a limited extent in our southern 
states for forage. Two species of Pennise- 
tum are commonly cultivated for orna- 
ment, P. villosum R. Br., with short broad 
heads and long plumose bristles, and P. 
Ruppellii Steud., with more slender rose- 
colored spikes tapering at the apex. 
{Penicillaria Willd.; Gymnothrix Beauv.) 




PANICEm 



187 



222. Cenchrus L. — Sand-bur. Bur-grass. Low often 
weedy grasses, usually annuals, the spikelets, singly 
or 2 or 3 together, inclosed by a bur formed of 
coalesced bristles or 

branchlets, these 
usually retrorsely 
barbed. The burs are 
borne in a spike or 
raceme, and, detach- 
ing easily at maturity, 
are transported by 
animals. The spikelets 
remain permanently 
inclosed in the bur, 
germination of the 
seed taking place 
within it. The first 
glume is much re- 
duced, sometimes 
wanting. The com- 
mon sand-bur of the 
United States is Cen- 
chrus carolinianus 
Walt. (Fig. 27). The 
one with larger burs 
found among the sand- 
dunes of the Atlantic 
sea coast is C. 
tribuloides L. 

223. Stenotaphrum 
Trin.— The best- 
known species of this Fig. 27. Cenchms carolinianus. Upper 

,, ^, portion of plant with inflorescence, X%; 

genus IS the St. spikelet, X7. 




188 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



Augustine grass, S. secundatum (Walt.) Kuntze (Fig. 28), 
a stoloniferous perennial with flat stems and spikes, the 
spikelets partly immersed in the thickened rachis. This 
species is grown as a lawn-grass near the seacoast from 
North Carohna to Florida and Louisiana. 




Fig. 28. Stenotaphrum secundatum. 
Upper portion of culms with inflores- 
cence, X H. spikelet, X5. 



CHAPTER XVIII 



Tribe VI. ORYZE^ 




This is one of the smaller tribes, the 
place of which among 
the other tribes is 
not evident. Neither 
is it in itself a natural 
group, but is made 
up of genera of diverse 
affinities. Certain 
anomalous genera, 
such as Pharus (Fig. 
29) Streptochseta and 
Reynaudia, included 
by Hackel and by 
Baillon in Oryzeae are 
referred by Bentham 
and Hooker, the first 
two to Panicese and 
the third to Triste- 
gineae. The articula- 
tion of the spikelets 
below the glumes in- 
dicates an alliance 
with the first series 
of tribes, Panicoidese; 
the laterally com- 
pressed or terete 

oT-kiL-c»lo+c inrlirtofck n-n Celled staminate spikelet, and a fertile floret, ' X3. 

spiKeietb maicaie an (u. s. Dept. Agr., div. Agrost., buu. 20). 

(189) 



Fig. 29. Pharus glaber. Plant reduced; branch- 
let of inflorescence with a sessile pistillate and pedi- 



190 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

alliance with the second series, Poseoidese. The spikelets 
are 1-flowered, perfect or unisexual, and usually disposed 
in panicles. There are usually 6 stamens and the hilum 
is linear instead of punctiform, in which two respects 
the structure is somewhat anomalous. The palea is 
usually described as 1-nerved, but an examination of 
Oryza sativa shows a palea with the 2 nerves close to 
the margin, the region between convex instead of concave 
as is usual in the palea of other grasses. In several genera, 
glumes are rudimentary or wanting. The tribe includes 
about 16 genera, mostly inhabitants of tropical America, 
6 extending into the United States. 

Key to the Genera of ORYZEiE 

A. Spikelets perfect, strongly compressed laterally. 

B. Glumes 2; lemma often awned ORYZA(Par.224) 

BB. Glumes wanting; lemma awnless Homalocen- 

AA. Spikelets unisexual, terete; plants monoecious. chrus. 

B. Plants slender, creeping in the mud or 
floating in the water. 
c. Inflorescence a few-flowered spike; plants 
not stoloniferous. Southeastern United 

States Hydrochloa. 

cc. Inflorescence a panicle; plants stolonifer- 
ous. Alabama Luziola. 

BB. Plants erect, stout; marsh plants or ter- 
restrial. 
c. Blades elliptical or oblanceolate, petiolate; 
fruit cylindrical, beset with hooked 

hairs ; plants terrestrial. Florida Pharus. 

CC. Blades elongated, Hnear, not petiolate; 
marsh plants. 
D. Pistillate spikelets in the usually narrow 
upper part of the panicle; staminate 
spikelets in the spreading lower part . . Zizania 
DD. Pistillate and staminate spikelets mixed (Par. 225). 

in the panicle, the former below and 
the latter above on each branch. 
Gulf States Zizaniopsis. 

224. Oryza L. — Rice. Characterized by the perfect 
flowers, strongly compressed spikelets and the presence 



ORYZE^ 



191 



of 2 small glumes. Of the half-dozen species 
only one is of importance. This is 0. sativa L. 
(Fig. 30), the cultivated rice, an annual now 
grown in numerous varieties throughout the 
warmer regions of the world. 
Rice is the most important of 
the cereals in the sense that it 
furnishes food to more people 
than any other one grain. 
The allied genus Homalocenchrus 
is represented by several perennial 
species in the eastern United States. 
The spikelets resem- 
ble those of Oryza but are 
smaller and lack the 
glumes. 

225. Zizania L. — Indian 
rice. Water - rice. Tall 
marsh-grasses, with large 
panicles, usually growing 
in shallow water in large 
areas. The pistillate spike- 
lets are long-awned and 
erect, the staminate are 
awnless and drooping. 
The seeds were formerly 
gathered by the American 
Indians and used for food. 
There are 3 species, Zizania palustris L. 
(Fig. 31), the common Indian rice of the 
United States, Z. aquatica L., a less com- paiustVis. " inflores- 

r /^ 1 t r-r T . . n 1 • cence, much re- 

mon species oi Canada, and Z. latifolia duced. (u. s. Dept. 
(Turcz.) Stapf, of eastern Asia. bSu' uT ^^^^^" 




Fig. 30. Oryza sa- 
t i V a. Inflorescence 
X ^2, spikelet, X3. 




CHAPTER XIX 




Tribe VII. PHALARIDE^ 

A SMALL tribe of about 6 genera in the 
cooler parts of the northern hemisphere and 
of Australasia. Spikelets with 1 fertile 
floret and a pair of staminate or neutral 
florets below. In Phalaris, the pair of sterile 
florets appear as small scales within the 
glumes. In Savastana the lateral florets (1 
or 2) are staminate and as large as the 
fertile floret. Only 3 genera are found in 
the United States. 

Key to the Genera of Phalaride^ 



A. Lateral florets stami- 
nate Savastana 

AA. Lateral florets neutral. (Par. 226) . 
B. Lateral florets re- 
duced to small awn- 
less scales ; spikelets 
much compressed 

laterally Phalaris 

BB. Lateral florets con- (Par. 228). 
sisting of awned 
hairy sterile lemmas 
about as long as the 
fertile floret; spike- 
lets terete Anthoxan- 

[thum 
(Par. 227). 



226. Savastana 



Schrank. — 

Fig. 32. Anthoxanthum odora- t a 
turn. Inflorescence, 1; spikelet, intloreSCenCe SlB. Open Or COU- 
the two sterile lemmas and the +„„„+^J U,,-*- -^^-i- r.-^iU^ i:u^ 

fertue floret, x5. tracted but uot spiKe-like 



(192) 



PHALARIDE^ 



193 



panicle; spikelets brown and shining; lateral 
florets (often awned) with 3 stamens, the 
central perfect floret with 2 stamens. The 
best known species is S. odorata (L.) Scribn., 
or vanilla-grass, a native of northern Europe 
and America. The name vanilla-grass refers 
to the fragrant odor of the foliage. Fragrant 
baskets, boxes and mats are woven of the 
long leaves of the sterile shoots, by the 
American Indians. Commonly called 
holy -grass in Europe. {Hierochloe 
R. Br.) 

227. Anthoxanthum L. — Inflores- 
cence a bronze-green spike-like panicle. 
One species, A. odoratum (Fig. 32), 
sweet vernal grass, a native of Europe, 
introduced in the cooler parts of the 
United States. Like vanilla-grass, it 
is fragrant, for which reason it is 
sometimes cultivated as a constitu- 
ent of meadow-grasses to impart a 
pleasant odor to the hay. Sweet ver- 
nal grass is useless as a forage-grass. 

A. aristatum Boiss. (A. Puelii 
Lecoq & Lamotte), an annual species 
is sometimes cultivated in the west 
and southwest. 



Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Sweet vernal 
grass. Perennial; culms in tufts, without 
rhizomes, erect, slender, smooth, 1 to 2 feet 
high; sheaths smooth or somewhat pubescent; 
ligule membranaceous, 2 to 5 mm. long; 
blades fiat, thin, scabrous, 1 to 3 inches long, 
M 



Fig. 33. Phalaris arun- 
dinacea. Inflorescence, 
X J^; spikelet and fertile 
floret, X5. 



194 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



mostly basal, one about the middle of the culm, the upper portion 
of the culm naked; panicle dense, spike-hke, bronze-green, 1 to 3 
inches long, narrowed above and below, the short branches spread- 
ing in flower; spikelets 8 to 10 mm. long, lanceolate, acuminate, 
the glumes sparsely pilose, acuminate, the first membranaceous, 
about half as long as the somewhat indurated second glume, the 
first sterile lemma short-awned below the apex, the second bearing 
a strong bent scarcely exserted awn near 
its base, both exceeding the chestnut- 
brown, smooth and shining fertile lemma 
and palea. Common in grassland in the 
northeastern states. 

228. Phalaris L. — Inflorescence a 
short or long usually dense spike- 
like panicle. The spike is often 
white or variegated with green from 
the green nerves of the spikelets, and 
is usually papery at maturity. One 
of our native species, P. arundinacea 
L. (Fig. 33), reed canary-grass, is a 
perennial found in the northern 
portion of the United States, where 
it furnishes an excellent quality of 
wild hay. In this species the sterile 
lemmas are much reduced and are 
closely appressed to the fertile 
lemma and palea. A variety of this 
(var. pida L.) with leaves striped 
with white is cultivated for ornament 
under the name of ribbon-grass or 
gardener's garters. P. carolinianus 
Walt., a perennial of the southern 

Fig. 34. Phalaris canari- United StatCS, is CUltivatcd tO a 

ensis. Inflorescence, X/4; ^^ • , ^ , , c • j. ir 

glumes and fertile floret limited CXtCUt lOr Winter lOragC. 

with the pair of sterile » , i • t-> • • t 

lemmas, x5. Auothcr spccics, r. canaviensis L., 




PHALARIDE^ 195 

canary-grass, an annual with ovate heads, is an occasional 
weed introduced from Europe. This is grown in Europe 
for the seed which furnishes the canary seed of commerce. 
Canary seed usually contains also the seed of Panicum 
miliaceum. The seed of Phalaris canariensis (Fig. 34) is pale yel- 
low, 5 mm. long, elliptical-lanceolate, laterally somewhat flattened 
but equally convex on both sides, hard and shining and more or less 
pubescent. The fruit of Panicum miliaceum is pale, brownish or 
reddish, about as long as canary-grass seed but much more plump, 
dorsally flattened on one side, the palea being inclosed or overlapped 
by the lemma, the whole smooth, hard, shining, and faintly nerved. 
The seed, when removed from the inclosing lemma and palea is 
nearly white, somewhat globular with a notch in one side, pearly 
in appearance. The fruit of common or foxtail millet (Chaetochloa 
italica) differs from that of Panicum miliaceum in being some- 
what smaller and faintly cross- wrinkled, and in the appearance of 
the palea, which presents 2 ridges near the margin representing 
the 2 keels. (See Figs. 21 and 25.) 



CHAPTER XX 

Tribe VIII. AGROSTIDE^ 

A LARGE tribe of about 50 genera inhabiting more 

especially the temperate and cooler regions of the world. 

Spikelets 1-flowered (the rachilla prolonged as a stipe 

behind the palea in a few genera) usually perfect, arranged 

in open, contracted or spike-like panicles, but not in 1-sided 

spikes or racemes. The spikelets are jointed with the 

pedicel in a few genera, and fall off entire (Alopecurus, 

Cinna, Polypogon, Lycurus, Limnodea). The palea is 

usually 2-nerved but in Cinna it appears to be 1-nerved, 

the 2 nerves lying close together. In some species of 

Agrostis the palea is a small nerveless scale or is wanting. 

In some genera the floret is raised slightly from the glumes 

on a hard stipe, the short internode of the rachilla. This 

remains attached to the floret at maturity as a hard point 

and is called the callus. This callus is pronounced in 

Stipa and Aristida and less so in Oryzopsis, Muhlen- 

bergia and a few other genera. In some species of Calama- 

grostis the short callus bears numerous silky hairs as long 

as the floret. 

Key to the Genera of Agrostide^ 

A. Lemma indurated at maturity, firmer than 
the glumes, closely enveloping the caryopsis 
and usually the palea, awned (except in 
Milium) from the tip, or mucronate (some 
species of Muhlenbergia). 
B. Awn trifid (the lateral awns sometimes 

short, rarely wanting) Aristida 

BB. Awn simple. (Par. 229). 

(196) 



AGROSTIDEM 197 

c. Spikelets in pairs in a spike-like panicle; 
one perfect, the other staminate or neu- 
tral, the pair deciduous together Lycurus. 

cc. Spikelets all alike. 

D. Rachilla prolonged behind the palea as 
a pedicel; glumes very short; inflo- 
rescence a narrow few-flowered panicle. Brachyely- 
DD. Rachilla not prolonged. [trum. 

E. Lemma awnless; fruit short, ovoid; 

inflorescence an open panicle Milium. 

EE. Lemma awned or mucronate. 

F. Awn slender, straight or flexuous, 
not twisted nor bent; spikelets 
small; glumes shorter than the 

lemma Muhlen- 

FF. Awn usually stout, bent or twisted. [bergia. 
G. Awn stout, twisted and bent, (Par. 231). 

persistent; callus pointed, long; 

lemma narrow Stipa 

GG. Awn bent but not twisted, de- (Par. 230 j. 

ciduous; callus short; obtuse; 
lemma broad, elliptical or 

ovate Oryzopsis. 

aa. Lemma not indurated at maturity, mem- 
branaceous or hyaline, like the glumes or 
more delicate. 
B. Glumes none; low annual. Oregon and 

Washington Schmidtia. 

BB. Glumes present. 

c. Glumes falling with the spikelet, some- 
times with a portion of the pedicel or 
branchlet, the articulation being below 
the glumes (compare Cinna). 

D. Glumes long-awned Polypogon. 

DD. Glumes awnless. 

E. Inflorescence a dense spike-like pan- 
icle; lemma awned from the lower 

part of the back . . Alopecurus 

EE. Inflorescence a narrow loose panicle; (Par. 233). 

lemma awned from the bifid apex. .Limnodea. 
cc. Glumes persistent, not articulated on the 
pedicel. 
D. Glumes longer than the lemma. 

B. Glumes plumose; an annual with 

woolly ovoid heads Lagurus 

EE. Glumes not plumose. (Par. 237). 

F. Inflorescence a dense cylindrical 
spike-like panicle; glumes com- 
pressed-carinate, cihate on the (Par. 232). 

keels ; lemma awnless Phleum 



198 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

FF. Inflorescence an open or contracted 
but not densely cylindrical pan- 
icle; glumes not compressed- 
carinate and ciliate. 
G. Glumes saccate at base; lemma 
long-awned; inflorescence con- 
tracted, shining; annuals Gastridium. 

GG. Glumes not saccate at base. 

H. Lemma bearing an awn several 
times its length; annuals 

with open panicles Apera. 

HH. Lemma short-awned, or awn- 
less, the palea often reduced 

or wanting Agrostis 

DD. Glumes as long as, or shorter than the (Par. 234). 

lemma. 
E. Lemma bearing a tuft of hairs at 
base from the short callus. 

F. Lemma and palea thin Calamagrostis 

FF. Lemma and palea (Aartaceous. (Par. 235). 
G. Panicles spike-like; rachilla pro- 
longed Ammophila 

GG. Panicles open; rachilla not pro- (Par. 236). 

longed Calamovilfa. 

EE. Lemma without hairs at base. 

F. Palea apparently 1-nerved, the 2 
nerves close together; rachilla 

prolonged ; panicle open Cinna. 

FF. Palea distinctly 2-nerved; rachilla 
not prolonged. 
G. Nerves of lemma densely silky. . Blepharo- 
GG. Nerves of lemma not silky. [neuron. 

H Fruit not inclosed in the 
lemma and palea, seed usually 
also loose in the pericarp, 
this opening at maturity. . . .Sporobolus. 
HH. Fruit inclosed in the lemma 
and palea; the seed also 
inclosed in the pericarp at 
maturity and grown to it; 
panicles spike-hke in our 
species. 
I. Panicles short, partly in- 
closed in the upper sheath; 
sparingly introduced from 

the Old World Heleochloa. 

n. Panicles elongated; tall per- 
ennials of Arizona and 
southward , . EpICAMPES. 



AGROSTIDE^ 



199 



229. Aristida L. — Needle-grass. A large genus, mostly 
tufted perennials of the warmer parts of the world, 
especially abundant in America. They are easily dis- 
tinguished by the narrow terete lemma bearing a pointed 
hairy callus below and a trifid awn above. The 2 lateral 
awns are sometimes shorter than the others or may be 
absent altogether {A . i 
scabra (H. B. K.) 
Kunth and its allies). 
The species not only 
have little forage 
value but on the 
contrary are often 
troublesome to 
ranchmen because of 
the sharp fruits which 
penetrate the skin of 
grazing animals. Sev- 
eral low perennial 
species are found in 
the new soil around 
the burrows of prairie 
dogs, hence the name 
dog-town grass. 

230. Stipa L.— 
Spear-grass. A large 
genus of tufted per- 
ennials found on the 
plains and steppes 
of both hemispheres. 
The fruit resembles 
that of Aristida but 
terminates in a single 




Fig. 35. Aristida longiseta. 
Spikelet, the floret raised from 
the glumes, XI. 



200 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



awn. This awn is usually tightly twisted below, the 
upper part being once or twice bent. In some species 
(S. spartea Trin.) (Fig. 36) the awn is stout and several 
inches long; in others it is beautifully plumose with silky 

hairs (S. pennata L. of 
the Russian steppes and 
S. speciosa Trin. & Rupr. 
of California). The vari- 
ous species form an 
important part of the 
forage on the plains and 
foothills of the south- 
western states and 
Mexico. The esparto- or 
alfa-grass of Spain and 
Algeria {S. tenacissima 
L.) furnishes a fiber that 
is used for paper and for 
cordage. The sleepy- 
grass (S. Vaseyi Scribn.) of Colorado and New 
Mexico because of narcotic qualities is injurious to 
horses. Two species of the Old World are said to 
be poisonous {S. inebrians Hance and S. sihirica 
Lam.). 

231. Muhlenbergia Schreh. — A large genus of 
mostly American grasses, especially abundant on the 
dry uplands of the southwestern states and Mexico. 
It grades on the one hand into Sporobolus, from 
which it differs in having an awned or mucronate lemma, 
and on the other into Epicampes, from which it differs 
in having a relatively firmer lemma. Many species are 
important constituents of the forage upon grazing areas 
in the Southwest. One species of the allied genus 




AGROSTIDE^ 



201 




Fig. 37. Muhlenbergia gracilis. Plant, XJ^; spikelet, the floret raised 
from the glumes, glumes and floret, X5. (U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Bot., 
Bull. 26.) 



202 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



Epicampes (E. rigens Benth.) is of some economic im- 
portance in Mexico, whence it is exported, the strong 
fibrous roots being used to make coarse brushes. 

232. Phleum L.— Timothy. A small 
genus of cold regions, recognized by the 
densely cylindrical spike-like panicles, and 
1-flowered much-compressed spikelets. Only 

1 species is native in America, the moun- 
tain timothy (P. alpinum L.) of the higher 
mountains and arctic regions. Common 
timothy {P. pratense L.) (Fig. 38), a native 
of Europe, is our most important cultivated 
meadow-grass. In some localities this grass 
is known as herd's-grass. 

Phleum pratense L. Timothy. Perennial; culms 
in tufts, somewhat bulbous at base, erect, smooth, 

2 to 3 feet high; sheaths smooth; ligule membranace- 
ous, 2 to 3 mm. long or the uppermost longer; 
blades flat, a few inches to a foot long; panicle 
densely cylindrical and spike-like, 2 to 5 inches 
long, obtuse; glumes about 3 mm. long, excluding 
the 1 to 2 mm. long awn, compressed, abruptly 
rounded to the awn, long-ciliate on the keel, the 
lemma and palea about equal, thin, half as long as 

the glumes. 

233. Alopecurus L. — A small 
genus of wide distribution, in cold tem- 
perate regions and in high altitudes, 
one species of which, meadow foxtail 
(A. pratensis), a native of Europe, is 
occasionally cultivated as a meadow- 
grass. This species may be recognized by its resemblance 
to timothy in having densely cylindrical spike-like 
panicles, but differing in having awns on the back of 




Fig. 38. Phleum pra- 
tense. Inflorescence, X H; 
glumes and mature 
floret, X7. 



AGROSTIDE^ 



203 



the lemmas that protrude from the spikelets giving the 
spike a soft furry appearance. 

Alopecurus pratensis L. (Fig. 39). Meadow foxtail. Perennial; 
culms erect from a short creeping base, smooth, 1 to 3 feet high; 
sheaths smooth, the uppermost 
somewhat inflated ; Hgule membra- 
naceous, truncate, 2 to 4 mm. 
long; blades flat, smooth beneath, 
rough above, 2 to 6 inches long; 
panicle dense, cyUndrical, 13^ to 
3 inches long, K inch thick; 
glumes 5 mm. long, equal, awn- 
less, 3-nerved, ciliate on the keel, 
connate at base, the broad, obtuse 
5~nerved lemma nearly as long, 
bearing from near the base a 
slender dorsal slightly bent awn, 
exserted about 5 mm. 

234. Agrostis L. — Bent- 
grass. A large genus found 
all over the world but 
sparsely represented in tropi- 
cal America. The North 
American species are nearly 
all perennials and are especi- 
ally abundant in the western 
mountains. Spikelets 1 -flow- 
ered; lemma dehcate, shorter 
than the nearly equal glumes, 
often awned from the back; 
palea small or wanting; in- 
florescence an open or contracted panicle. The wild species 
are mostly important constituents of grazing areas in the 
mountains. Redtop {A. alba), cultivated as a meadow- 
grass, is a perennial 1 to 4 feet tall, with rootstocks, flat 




Fig. 39. Alopecurus pratensis. Plant 
reduced; spikelet and floret, X3. (U. S. 
Dept. Agr., Div. Agrost., Bull. 20.) 



204 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



blades and an erect open often reddish panicle usually 4 
to 8 inches long, with verticillate lower branches. A 
smaller form, Rhode Island bent {A. alba vulgaris), with 
finer foliage and a smaller more open panicle, is often 
used for lawns. Another form of Agrostis alba with 
creeping stems and narrow panicle is used for lawns 
under the name of creeping bent. 

Agrostis alba L. (Fig. 40) Redtop. Peren- 
nial; culms erect from a more or less decum- 
bent base bearing rhizomes, smooth, 1 to 4 feet 
high; sheaths smooth; Ugule membranaceous, 
pointed, more or less lacerate, as much as 6 
mm. long; blades flat, 2 inches to as much as 
a foot long, scabrous on both surfaces, strongly 
nerved, acuminate, usually rather stiffly up- 
right; panicle 2 to 12 inches long, open at 
anthesis but usually more or less contracted 
in fruit, the branches in whorls, some naked 
below, others short and spikelet-bearing at 
base; glumes 2 to 3 mm. long, lanceolate, 
pointed, scabrous on the keel, the lemma thin, 
a Httle shorter than the glumes, the palea half 
to two-thirds as long as the lemma. The color 
of the panicle varies from greenish to purple or 
brown. This grass has escaped from cultiva- 
tion or has been introduced over a large part of 
the United States. In the western mountains 
the species is doubtfully native. This grass is 
known by the name of herd's-grass in some 
localities, especially in Pennsylvania. In Eng- 
land it is called florin. 

Agrostis alba vulgaris (With.) Thurb. Rhode 
Island bent. Differs from the preceding in the 
smaller size, more delicate 
culms and foliage, smaller 
and especially more open 
and fewer-flowered panicle, 

Fig. 40. Agrostis .alba. Inflorescence and ,, . , (^r,nirf\oi(^(\ in 

rhizomes. xH;3pikeiet, X5. this not contracteQ m 




AGROSTIDE^ 



205 



fruit. The ligule is often shorter and usually truncate. This form 
is common in grass land in the northeastern states, where it is 
introduced or escaped from cul- 
tivation. 

A grostis alba maritima 
(Lam.) G. F. W. Mey. Creep- 
ing bent. Differs from redtop 
in its crieeping or stoloniferous 
stems and narrow panicles, the 
blades mostly short and ap- 
pressed. Native along the North 
Atlantic coast of America and 
Europe, and the Pacific coast 
from central California to British 
Columbia. The form cultivated 
for lawns appears to have been 
derived from this. 

Rhode Island bent. In 
botanical literature this name 
has been applied to A grostis 
canina L., a grass similar in 
appearance to A. alba vulgaris, 
but usually more deUcate, the 
glumes about 2 mm. long, the 
lemma about three-fourths as 
long as the glumes, bearing a 
little below the middle a bent 
exserted awn, the palea wanting. 
This is a native of Europe and 
is rare in America. There is no 
evidence that this species has 
been cultivated in Europe or 
America. The seed sold under 
the name Rhode Island bent is 
imported from Europe, and consists for the most part of some form 
of Agrostis alba, usually of creeping bent, or the form described 
above under A. alba vulgaris. 

235. Calamagrostis Adans. — A large genus of peren- 
nials growing in the cooler regions of all continents. 




Fig. 41. Calamagrostis scabra. Plant 
reduced; spikelet, the floret raised from 
the glumes, X3. (U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. 
Agrost., Bull. 20.) 



206 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



Spikelets 1-flowered, the rachilla prolonged; lemma awned 
from the back, surrounded by a tuft of callus hairs ; inflo- 
rescence an open or contracted panicle. A common con- 
stituent of native meadows in the northern temperate and 
arctic regions of America. Blue joint, 
C. canadensis (Michx.) Beauv., is com- 
monly cut for hay from Montana to 
Minnesota. This is a perennial with 
creeping rhizomes, erect culms 3 to 5 
feet high and a rather open panicle 
resembling that of redtop. Another 
species, pine-grass C. rubescens Buckl. 
(C. Suksdorfii Scribn.), is an excellent 
range-grass in the mountains of eastern 
Oregon and Washington. Calamagrostis 
scabra Presl (erroneously referred to C. 
Langsdorfii) (Fig. 41) is a common 
grass along the coast of Alaska and in 
open grass lands of British Columbia. 
236. Ammophila Host. — Beach- 
grass. Marram-grass. A genus of 1 or 
2 species, allied to Calamagrostis from 
which it differs in its strongly com- 
pressed spikelets and chartaceous 
lemma and palea, the lemma awnless. 
The common species is A. arenaria (L.) 
Link (Fig. 42), which grows in sand- 
dunes of the north Atlantic coast of 
Europe and America. It is found also 
on the sand-dunes along the east and 

arenaria. ' Inflorescence SOUth shoreS of Lake Michigan. It 
and lower portion of , j. • i • x 

plant. X H. (u. s.Dept. produccs cxtensively creepmg root- 
NJ.'H.r* ^^^^^" ^ ' stocks because of which, and because 




AGROSTIDE^ 207 

the culms are able to push upward when buried, it can 
grow in drifting sand. It has been utilized as a sand- 
binder in Europe and more recently in America, especially 
on Cape Cod and in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. 
In Europe marram-grass is used also for paper-making. 

237. Lagurus L. — The one species, L. ovatus L., a 
native of Europe, is cultivated as an ornamental grass for 
dry bouquets. It is an annual with ovoid woolly heads, 
and narrow pointed plumose glumes. 



CHAPTER XXI 

Tribe IX. AVENE^E 

A MODERATELY large tribe of about 30 genera, found in 
the cooler parts of the world. Spikelets 2- to several- 
flowered, in open or contracted panicles or sometimes in 
racemes; lemmas usually shorter than the glumes, usually 
awned on the back or from between the teeth of a bifid 
apex, the awn bent and often twisted, the callus and 
usually the rachilla-joints hairy. Only a few of the genera 
are found in America. In all these except Aira, an intro- 
duced genus, there is a prolongation of the rachilla behind 
the uppermost floret ; and except in some species of Spheno- 
pholis and in the American species of Koeleria the lemma is 
awned. These genera are usually placed in Festuceae, but 
in all characters except the absence of the awn they show 
affinity with the genera of Avenese. 

Key to Genera of Avene^ 

A. Articulation below the glumes, these deciduous 
with the whole or a part of the spikelet. 
B. Glumes longer than the 2 florets, pubescent.. Notholcus 
BB. Glumes shorter than the 2 or 3 florets, (Par. 238). 

glabrous or scabrous, the second widened 

above Sphenopholis. 

AA. Articulation above the glumes and between 
the florets. 
B. Lemma awnless or mucronate; inflorescence 

a spike-like panicle; an erect perennial Kceleria. 

BB. Lemma awned. 

c. Rachilla not prolonged; spikelets 2-flow- 

ered; delicate introduced annuals Aira. 

cc. Rachilla prolonged behind the uppermost 
floret. 

(208) 



AVENE^ 209 

D. Awn arising from between the teeth of 
the bifid apex, flattened, twisted; in- 
florescence a simple panicle or reduced 
to a raceme or even to a single spikelet.DANTHONiA. 
DD. Awn dorsal. 

E. Lower floret of the 2-flowered spike- 
let staminate Arrhenath- 

EE. Lower floret perfect. [erum (Par. 241). 

F. Spikelets large, the glumes over 

1 cm. long AvENA 

FF. Spikelets less than 1 cm. long. (Par. 239). 

G. Lemma keeled, bidentate; awn 

arising from above the middle.. Trisetum. 
GG. Lemma convex; awn from below 

the middle Deschampsia. 

238. Notholcus Nash. — A genus of several species of 
Europe and Africa, one of which, velvet-grass (N. lanatus), 
is introduced in America. This is sometimes cultivated as 
a meadow-grass but has little forage value. As it thrives 
better than other meadow-grasses upon poor soil it is 
utilized for sterile ground. It has escaped in many parts 
of the United States especially on the Pacific coast. Velvet- 
grass is an erect perennial with velvety foliage and a 
narrow panicle, expanded in flower. (Holcus L. in part.) 

Notholcus lanatus (L.) Nash. (Fig. 43) . Velvet-grass. Perennial; 
culms erect, 1 to 3 feet high, pubescent; sheaths velvety especially 
near the node; ligule pubescent, membranaceous, about 2 mm. long, 
more or less toothed and ciliate; blades flat, velvety, mostly 2 to 4 
inches long; panicle oblong, 2 to 4 inches long, pale or purplish, in 
flower spreading and rather open, in fruit contracted; spikelets 4 to 
5 mm. long, the glumes pubescent, longer than the florets, ciliate 
on the nerves, the upper broader, 3-nerved, the awn of the second 
floret hooked. A common weed from Puget Sound to San Francisco, 
in moist and dry soil. 

239. Avena L. — Oats. Mostly annuals with large 
spikelets, of which the common cultivated oat (A. sativa) is 
the most famihar example. The drooping spikelets are in 
open panicles. The large and papery glumes are longer than 

N 



210 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



the lemmas, the latter being awnless or bearing a straight 
awn. A wild species (A.fatua) differs in having the lemma 
covered with brown hairs and in having a stout geniculate 
twisted dorsal awn attached near the base. This species 
is a native of Europe but is introduced on the Pacific 
coast where it is a common weed known as wild oats and 
where it is often used for hay. 

Avena saliva L. Cultivated oat. An- 
nual; culms erect, tufted, smooth, 2 to 4 
feet high; sheaths smooth, striate, the 
lower rather papery; ligule membranace- 
ous, truncate, 1 to 3 mm. long, toothed or 
serrate, decurrent along the margin of the 
sheath; blades flat, as much as 1 foot 
long and 3^ inch wide, scabrous especially 
on the margins; panicle open or more or 
less contracted, erect or nodding, some- 
times 1-sided, the pedicels thickened at 
the apex; spikelets large, drooping, vari- 
able in size but usually about 34 to 1 inch long, 
the glumes strongly several - nerved, membra- 
naceous, acuminate, scabrous, containing usually 
2 florets, the lemmas smooth or slightly hairy at 
the base, the teeth acute but not awned, the 
dorsal awn absent or, if present, usually straight 
and not much exceeding the glumes, often pre- 
sent only on the lower floret, the palea inclosed 
by the inrolled margin of the lemma, densely 
short-ciHate on the 2 keels. The florets 
do not easily disarticulate, a condition 
probably due to cultivation. Commonly 
cultivated and often escaped from fields 
and in the vicinity of elevators, mills, 
railroads and in waste places, but rarely 
estabhshed permanently. There are sev- 
FiG. 43. Notholcu3 lanatus. era! races or possibly species in cultiva- 
Inflorescence X3^; spikeiet, ^iQ^. The naked oat {A. nuda L.) differs 

the two florets raised from ^ ^ . 

the glumes, X7. in having more than 2 florets and m 




AVENEM 



211 



having the caryopsis loosely and not permanently inclosed in the 
nerved lemma. 

Avena fatua L. (Fig. 44). Wild oats. Differs from A. saliva 
chiefly in the spikelet characters. Florets easily disarticulating, the 
lemma beset with stiff usually brown hairs, 
these more abundant at base, the teeth acute 
as in ^. saliva, the dorsal awn well developed, 
over an inch long, geniculate, twisted at base, 
usually brown. A common weed on the 
Pacific coast and occasional elsewhere. 

Avena falua g I ah rat a 
Peterm. Differs from A. falua 
in having nearly or quite gla- 
brous lemmas. This form can 
be distinguished from the usual 
forms of A. saliva by the 
strong awn and by the easily disarticulating 
spikelets. 

Avena barbata Brot. Differs from A. fatua in 
having more slender panicle branches and in the 
awned teeth of the lemma. A common weed on 
the Pacific coast, and a constituent of the wild 
oats of that region. 

Avena slerilis L. Animated oats. Differs from 
A. fatua in having larger spikelets, the glumes nearly 2 inches long, 
and awns about 2 inches long. An occasional weed and some- 
times cultivated as a curiosity, the "seeds" moving about as the 
awns twist and untwist. This motion is due to the absorption or 
loss of moisture. 




Fig. 44. Avena 
fatua. Spikelet and 
a lower tioret, XI. 



240. Origin of the cultivated oats. — Trabut has shown 
that our cultivated oats are derived from at least three 
wild species. Avena fatua is the parent of most of the 
varieties cultivated in America, and in general the va- 
rieties of temperate and mountain regions. The Algerian 
oat grown in North Africa and Italy is derived from 
Avena sterilis. A few varieties such as Avena strigosa, 
adapted to dry countries, are descended from Avena 



212 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



barbata. (See Translation of Trabut's article in Journal 

of Heredity 5: 56. 1914.) 

241. Arrhenatherum Beauv. — To this 
small genus belongs the tall oat-grass {A. 
elatius), a tall perennial with narrow pani- 
cles of spikelets similar to those of the oat 
but smaller, about 8 mm. long, 2-flowered, 
the first floret staminate and awned, the 
second perfect and nearly awnless. This is 
a native of Europe and now cultivated 
occasionally in this country as a meadow- 
grass, especially in mixtures. It is also called 
Randall-grass. 

Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. (Fig. 45.) 
Tall oat-grass. Perennial; culms erect, smooth, 3 to 
4 feet high, sheaths smooth; ligule membranaceous, 
truncate, about 1 mm. long; blades narrow, usually 




Fig. 4.5. Arrhenatherum 
elatius. Inflorescence, XH", 
spikelet, X4. 



panicle long and narrow, rather loose, 6 to 10 inches 
long, pale or purphsh, shining, the short branches 
verticillate, usually spikelet-bearing from the base; 
spikelets 7 to 8 mm. long, the glumes minutely sca- 
brous, unequal, the second nearly as 
long as the florets; lemmas scabrous, the 
awn of the staminate floret about twice 
the length of its lemma, geniculate, sca- 
brous. Often escaped from cultivation 
and a weed in waste places in the humid 
region. 

Arrhenatherum elatius bulbosum (Presl) 
Koch. Differs from the preceding in pro- 
ducing corms at the base of the stems. 
These corms are 5 to 10 mm. in diameter 
in clusters of usually 2 to 5 in moniliform 
strings. An occasional introduction, from 
Virginia southward. 



CHAPTER XXII 

Tribe X. CHLORIDEtE 

A MODERATELY large tribe of about 30 genera, mostly 
of warm regions. It can be recognized by its 1-sided spikes 
or spike-like racemes, the spikelets borne in 2 rows on 
one side of a continuous rachis. Spikelets 1- to many- 
flowered, usually articulated above the glumes. The 
spike is reduced to 2 or 3 spikelets or even to 1 spikelet 
in some species of Bouteloua and allied genera. In the 
dioecious genus Bulbilis the pistillate spikelets are in a 
small cluster among the leaves, but the staminate inflo- 
rescence is characteristic of the tribe. Some species of 
Leptochloa approach the tribe Festuceae, the spikes not 
being strictly 1-sided. In some species of Bouteloua the 
small spikes are deciduous from the main axis, thus resem- 
bling Nazieae. 

Key to the Genera of Chlorideje 

A. Plants dioecious or monoecious; low stolo- 

niferous perennials Bulbilis 

AA. Plants with perfect flowers. (Par. 245). 
B. Spikelets with more than 1 perfect floret, 
c. Spikes sohtary, the spikelets distant, ap- 
pressed, several-flowered; a low per- 
ennial Tripogon. 

cc. Spikes more than 1 (exceptionally 1 in 
Eleusine). 
D. Spikes numerous, slender, along an 

elongated axis Leptochloa. 

DD. Spikes few, digitate or nearly so; annual 
weeds. 
e. Rachis of spike extending beyond the [tenium. 

spikelets \ Dactyloc- 

(213) 



214 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

EE. Rachis not prolonged Eleusine. 

BB. Spikelets with only 1 perfect floret, often 

with additional imperfect or modified 

florets above, sometimes also below. 

c. Spikelets without additional modified 

florets, the rachilla sometimes prolonged. 

D. Rachilla articulated below the glumes. 

E. Glumes narrow, unequal Spartina. 

ee. Glumes equal, broad and boat- 
shaped. Beckmannia. 

DD. Rachilla articulated above the glumes. 
E. Spikes digitate; plants extensively 

creeping Capriola 

(Par. 242). 
EE. Spikes racemose; plants cespitose. . . . Schedonnardus 
cc. Spikelets with 1 or more modified florets 
above the perfect one. 
D. Spikelets with 2 sterile florets below the 

perfect one Campulosus. 

DD. Spikelets with no sterile florets below 
the perfect one. 
E. Spikes digitate. 

F. Fertile lemma 1-awned or awnless..CHLORis 

(Par. 243). 

FF. Fertile lemma 3-awned Trichloris. 

EE. Spikes racemose. 

F. Spikelets distant; spikes slender Gymnopogon. 

FF. Spikelets approximate, often im- 
bricated. 
G. Spikes usually short and rather 
stout, sometimes with only 1 

to few spikelets Bouteloua 

(Par. 244). 

242. Capriola Adans. — A small genus of Old World 
grasses, one of which, Bermuda-grass (C Dactylon), has 
been introduced in America and is now common in the 
tropics and warmer regions as far north as Maryland and 
southern Kansas. This is a low perennial, producing 
extensively creeping stolons and rhizomes and erect flower- 
culms, a few inches to a foot or more in height, ending in 
3 to 6 slender digitate spikes. It is an excellent grass for 
lawns and pastures in the southern states but in cultivated 
fields often becomes a troublesome weed. In soft soil it 



CHLORIDES 



215 



forms large rhizomes and coarse foliage but in lawns the 
foliage is fine and the plants are stoloniferous. Although 
called Bermuda-grass it is not a native of Bermuda. 
{Cynodon Rich.) 

Capriola Dactylon (L.) Kuntze {Cynodon Dactylon (L.) Pers.). 
(Fig. 46.) Bermuda-grass. A gray-green perennial; culms exten- 
sively creeping, either below the surface of the soil forming rhi- 
zomes, or above ground forming stolons, the fertile shoots ascend- 
ing, smooth, a few inches to as much as 2 feet in height; sheaths 

smooth, flattened and keeled, vil- 
lous on each side at the throat; 
ligule a very short cihate-fringed 
membrane; blades flat, 2 to 4 mm. 
wide, 

sterile shoots sometimes much 
longer, more or less scabrous, at 
least on the margin, sharp-pointed; 
inflorescence consisting of 3 to 6 
slender ascending spikes 1 to 2 
inches long, digitate at the summit 
of the culms, pubescent at the base, 
the rachis M to 3^ mm. wide; spike- 
lets much compressed, often pur- 
plish, ovate, about 2^ mm. long; 
glumes narrow, pointed, scabrous 
on the keel, shorter than the spike- 
let, the lemma pubescent on the 
margin and often also on the keel. 



Fig. 46. Capriola Dactylon. Plant show- 
ing stolons, XH'> spikelet, X7. 




216 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



The spikelets face alternately to the right and left, often apparently 
in a single row. In Europe this grass is called dog's-tooth, refer- 
ring to the tooth-shaped old sheaths on the runners, and cock's-foot, 

referring to the digitate inflores- 
cence. In the British West Indies 
it is called Bahama-grass. 

243. Chi oris Swartz.—A 
moderate-sized genus, many 
annual species of which are 
weeds in the tropics. On ac- 
count of the silky spikes they 
are usually handsome grasses. 
One species, C. Gayana Kunth, 
has been introduced in the 
southern states as a meadow- 
grass under the name of 
Rhodes - grass. (See ''Some 
New Grasses for the South," 
Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agr. 
1912.) 

244. Bouteloua Lag. — 
Grama-grasses. A genus of 
about 30 species, all Ameri- 
can, especially abundant in 
southwestern United States 
and on the Mexican plateau. 
They are important grazing- 

FiG. 47. Bouteloua gracilis. Inflores- —yocaQo 
cence, X 1; spikelet, XIO. graSSCS. 

Bouteloua gracilis {Il.3.J\..) Lag. (B. oligostachyaTorr.). (Fig. 
47.) Perennial; culms smooth, tufted, erect, 6 to 18 inches high; 
sheaths smooth, or the lower somewhat villous, bearing at the 
throat a tuft of long hairs on each side; ligule very short; blades 
mostly basal, fiat or usually involute, fiexuous or curly, 1 to 2 mm. 
wide, 2 to 4 inches long, scabrous on the margin ; spikes usually 2, 




CHLORIDES 



217 



1 terminal, the other a short distance below, both nearly sessile 
and more or less ascending, about an inch long, somewhat curved; 
spikelets sessile, about 5 mm. long, densely crowded on one side of 
the pubescent rachis; glumes narrow, the upper villous and more or 
less beset with dark papillae, the lemma pubescent; rudiment 
rounded, 3-awned. The end of the rachis does not project beyond 
the spikelets. The spikes turn with the wind like vanes. In the 
less arid portions of the Great Plains this species forms a rather 
compact sod; in drier regions the tufts are isolated. This is some- 
times called blue grama but to stockmen it is usually known merely 
as grama. It is the most important economic species of the genus, 
ranging on the Great Plains from Manitoba to South America and 
westward into New Mexico, Arizona and southern California. 

Bouteloua hirsuta Lag. Black grama. Resembles the preceding 
but differs in the prolongation of the rachis 
as a naked point 5 to 8 mm. beyond the 
spikelets, and in the more hairy second 
glumes with prominent black papillae. The 
range is about the same as that of the pre- 
ceding but does not extend so far north. 

Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr. 
Tall or Side-oat grama. Culms 2 to 3 feet 
high, the spikes numerous, 30 to 50, 
arranged, by twisting of the peduncles, 
along one side of the upper part of the 
culm for 6 to 10 inches, about 3^ inch 
long, the spikelets appressed, 5 to 8 in 
each spike. Prairies and plains, from 
Ontario to Montana and south through 
Mexico to South America. 




218 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



There are many other species in the southwestern states and 
in Mexico, but the 3 described above are the best-known economic 
species. 

245. Bulbilis Raf. — Buffalo-grass, The single species, 
B. dadyloides (Nutt.) Raf. (Buchloe dadyloides (Nutt.) 
Engelm.) (Figs. 48 and 49), a common and often the 
dominant grass on the Great Plains, is a low stoloniferous 
perennial that forms a firm sod. The staminate inflores- 
cence consists of 2 or 3 short 1-sided spikes on a culm a 
few inches high; the pistillate spikes are hidden among 
the leaves near the ground. 




Fig. 49. Bulbilis dactyJoides. Pistillate plant, 
X3^; cluster of spikelets and floret, X4. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
Tribe XL FESTUCE^ 

A LARGE tribe of about 80 genera, mainly inhabitants 
of the cooler regions. Spikelets more than 1-flowered, 
usually several-flowered; inflorescence an open, narrow 
or sometimes spike-like panicle. If the lemmas are awned, 
the awn is straight and terminal or rarely from between 
the teeth of a bifid apex (some species of Bromus and a few 
species of Festuca). The lemma is divided into several 
awns at the summit in Pappophorum and Cottea and a 
few other genera. In some species of Eragrostis the palea 
is persistent on the inarticulate rachilla. In most of the 
genera the spikelet breaks up at maturity, each floret 
faUing with a joint of the rachilla, the glumes being 
persistent on the pedicel. Scleropogon, Monanthochloe, 
Distichlis and a few species of Poa are dioecious. The 
blades are broad and petioled in a few tropical genera. 
Gynerium, Cortaderia, Arundo and Phragmites are 
tall reeds. 

Key to the Genera of Festuce^ 

A. Lemmas divided at summit into 3 to several 
awns or awn-like lobes (only the pistillate in 
Scleropogon; lemmas more or less 3-toothed 
in Tridens of the next division). 
B. Awns 9 or more. 

c. Divisions of lemma awn-like, plumose; 

panicle spike-like. Arizona Pappophorum. 

cc. Divisions membranaceous, awn-pointed; 

panicle open. Texas to Arizona Cottea. 

BB. Awns less than 9. 

(219) 



220 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

c. Plants dioecious; sexes unlike, the pistillate 
lemmas long-awned, the staminate awn- 
less or nearly so; southwestern states 

(burro-grass) Scleropogon. 

cc. Plants perfect; lemmas broad, 5-lobed; 
spikelets in racemes; annuals. Cali- 
fornia Orcuttia. 

AA. Lemmas awnless or with 1 terminal awn, this 

sometimes from between 2 teeth (more or 

less 3-toothed in Tridensj. 

B. Rachilla or lemma with hairs as long as the 

lemma (only the pistillate in Cortaderia); 

tall reeds with large terminal plume-like 

panicles. 

c. Plants dioecious, the staminate spikelets 

naked ; blades narrow Cortaderia 

cc. Plants perfect; blades broad. (Par. 246). 

D. Lemmas hairy; rachilla naked Arundo 

(Par. 247). 

DD. Lemmas naked; rachilla hairy Phragmites. 

BB. Rachilla and lemmas naked or pubescent, not 
with long hairs, 
c. Plants dioecious. 

D. Plants low (ind creeping; spikelets 
obscure, scarcely differentiated from 
the short crowded rigid leaves; mud 
flats along coast. Florida and Cali- 
fornia MONANTHO- 

DD. Plants erect from creeping rhizomes; [chloe. 

inflorescence a narrow simple exserted 

panicle Distichlis 

cc. Plants not dioecious (except a few species (Par. 249). 

of Poa). 
D. Spikelets of 2 forms, sterile and fertile 
intermixed. 
E. Fertile spikelets 2- to 3-flowered; ster- 
ile spikelets with numerous awned 
glumes; our species perennial (C. 
cristatus L., crested dog's-tail, occa- 
sionally so\^^l in mixtures for 

meadows) Cynosurus. 

EE Fertile spikelets 1-flowered, long- 
awned; sterile spikelets with many 
obtuse glumes; annual (A. aureum 
(L.) Kuntze, Lamarckia aurea 
Moench, golden top, occasionally 
cultivated for ornament, commonly 
introduced on the Pacific coast).. . .Achyrodes. 
DD. Spikelets all alike. 



FESTUCEJ^ 221 

E. Callus and nerves of lemma densely 

bearded ; lemma 3-nerved, the nerves 

ending in teeth or lobes. 

F. Empty lemmas 2 below the fertile 

floret; spikelets with 1 fertile 

floret and a 3-awned rudiment 

above; low desert perennials Blephart- 

FF. Empty lemmas none at base of [dachne. 

spikelets. 
G. Hairs not extending along the 3 
conspicuous nerves of the 
lemma; panicle large and open.REDFiELDiA. 
GG. Hairs extending from the callus 
along the nerves of the lemma. 
H. Palea cihate-fringed ; midnerve 
excurrent between the lobes 

of the lemma Triplasis. 

HH. Palea not ciliate-fringed ; the 
3 nerves of the lemma often 
extending into teeth, the 

apex sometimes 2-lobed Tridens. 

EE. Callus and nerves of lemma glabrous 
or pubescent, sometimes cobwebby 
but not bearded. 
F. Plants tufted and creeping, annual; 
spikelets hidden among the short 
sharp-pointed leaves. Western. . . Munroa. 
FF. Plants with distinct inflorescence. 
G. Lemmas coriaceous, rounded on 
the back, smooth and shining, 
the margin not scarious. 
H. Empty lemmas 1 to 4 at base of 
spikelets; spikelets strongly 

compressed Uniola. 

HH. Empty lemmas 2 to 4 at 
summit of spikelet; spikelets 

not compressed .Diarrhena. 

GG. Lemmas membranaceous, or if 
somewhat coriaceous, the mar- 
gins scarious. 
H. Lemmas 3-nerved (Sphenoph- 
olis might be sought here). 
I. Glumes longer than the 

lemmas. California Dissanthe- 

II. Glumes shorter than the [lium. 

lemmas. 
J. Spikelets sub terete. Spar- 
ingly introduced from 
• Europe Molinia. 



222 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

jj. Spikelets compressed. 

K. Spikelets 2-flowered; ra- 

chilla articulate Catabrosa. 

KK. Spikelets 3- to many- 
flowered; rachilla usually 
continuous, the palea 
persistent after the fall 

of the lemma Eragrohtis 

HH. Lemmas 5- to several-nerved. (Par. 248). 

I. Lemmas flabellate, many- 
nerved; spikelets in close 
si)ike-like panicles; annual. 

California Anthochloa. 

II. Lemmas not flabellate. 

J. Spikelets in 1-sided fascicles, 
these in a panicle, the 
branches spreading in 
anthesis, appressed at 

maturity Dactylis 

JJ. Spikelets not in 1-sided (Par. 250). 

fascicles. 
K. Palea wing-margined or 
append aged on the keels; 
spikelets long and slender, 
in racemes. California. . . Pleuropogon. 
KK. Palea not wing-margined 
nor appendaged. 
L. Callus bearded (base of 
lemma cobwebby in 
species of Poa) spikelets 
2- to 4-flowered. 
M. Rachilla pilose, pro- 
longed above the upper 
floret; lemma with a 
short awn just below 

the tip Graphe- 

MM. Rachilla naked, not [phorum. 

prolonged ; lemma awn- 
less but 1 or more of 
the nerves projecting 

beyond the apex Scolochloa. 

LL. Callus not bearded. 
M. Spikelets as broad as 
long, somewhat heart- 
shaped ; lemmas broad, 
closely imbricated, 
horizontally spreading.BRiZA. 
MM. Spikelets longer than 
broad. 



FESTUCE^E 223 

N. Lemmas papery, sca- 
rious-margined, nar- 
row and awned or 
acuminate, or broad 
and obtuse (the up- 
per lemmas then re- 
duced to a club- 
shaped rudiment 
enfolded by the up- 
per broad lemmas); 
spikelets tawny or 
purplish, not green. .Melica. 
NN. Lemmas not scarious- 
margined, or if 
sHghtly so, only at 
the tip, the lemma 
green (Poa). 
o. Lemma obscurely 
nerved, rounded on 
back, obtuse, awn- 
less; glumes small, 
much shorter than 
lemmas. Low plants 
of the seashore and 

of alkaline soil Puccinellia. 

oo. Lemma distinctly 
nerved ; glumes 
nearly as long as 
the first lemma, 
p. Nerves of lemma 
prominent, paral- 
lel; lemma broad, 
obtuse, awnless, 8- 

to 9-nerved Panicularia. 

pp. Nerves of lemma 
evident but not 
prominent. 
Q. Lemmas obtuse 
or acutish, awn- 
less, somewhat 
scarious at tip, 
5-nerved, some- 
times cobwebby 

at base Poa (Par. 251). 

QQ. Lemmas acute or 
awned. 
R. Lemmas entire, 

often awned, (Par. 254). 

rounded below.FESTUCA 



224 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



RR. Lemmas bifid 
at apex, often 
awned from 
between the 
teeth; spikelets 
large, some- 
times com- 
pressed and (Par. 258). 
keeled Bromus 



246. Cortaderia Stapf. — Pampas-grass. The orna- 
mental species, C. argentea (Nees) Stapf (Fig. 50), is a 
large reed growing in clumps, the blades numerous, long 
and narrow, drooping, the flower-stalk tall and slender, 
bearing a large silvery white or rosy plume 1 to 2 feet 
long. A native of Argentina, cultivated for ornament 
and, in California, on a commercial scale for the plumes. 

Another species, C. jubata (Lem.) Stapf, with smaller and more 
lax lavender-colored plume, is occasionally cultivated. A related 
plant, the uva-grass Gynerium sagittatum (Aubl.) Beauv. {G. sac- 
char oides Humb. & Bonpl.), sometimes 
cultivated, is a tall coarse leafy reed, 
12 to 30 feet high, with creeping root- 
stocks, the lower leaves soon dropping, 
leaving the stem naked below. Tropi- 
cal America; not hardy. 

247. Arundo L. — Giant-reed. 
The species found in the United 
States, A. Donax L., is a tall 
stout reed, 5 to 10 feet high, with 
somewhat woody finally much- 
branched stem, broad clasping 
blades and large plumes or pani- 

FiG. .50. Cortaderia argen- . . ^. /• , i -xir ^•l^ 

tea. A group of inflorescences clCS. A UatlVe 01 the Medlter- 
greatly reduced; glumes of . li- i i • j^i 

pistillate spikeiet (a), florets raucau rcgiou, cultivatcd m the 

of pistillate spikelet (6), glumes ^, ■ ■ /• j t^ 

(c), and florets id) of staminate southcm statcs lor omameut. It 

spikelet, XI. (T. S. Dept. Agr., , , , .... 

Div. Agrost., Bull. 20.) has escaped along irrigation 




FESTUCEJE 



225 




ditches from Texas to Cali- 
fornia. 

248. Eragrostis Host. — 
A large genus of over 100 
species, found throughout 
the warmer regions of the 
world. Annuals or peren- 
nials with open, narrow or 
spike-like panicles; spike- 
lets many -flowered, awn- 
less; rachilla usually con- 
tinuous, the paleas often 
persistent after the fall of 
the lemmas and fruits. Sev- 
eral species are weeds intro- 
duced from the Old World. 
One of these, E. cilianensis 
(All.) Link {E. megastachya 
(Koel.) Link) (Fig. 51), 
called snake-grass or stink- 
grass, emits a disagreeable 
odor from glands along the 
keels of the lemmas. Teff, 
E. ahyssinica (Jacq.) Link, (U.s.Dept. Agr.,Div. Agrost..Buii. i7.) 

is an important food-plant in Abyssinia and has been 
tried in other countries as a forage plant. Several 
species are occasionally cultivated for ornament, the 
panicles being used for dry bouquets. 

249. Distichlis Raf. — Salt-grass. Low dioecious per- 
ennials of seacoasts and alkaline flats. Only 1 species, D. 
spicata (L.) Greene (Fig. 52), is found in the United 
States. This is common in salt-marshes throughout the 
country. The culms are erect fom extensively creeping 

o 



Fig. 51. Eragrostis cilianensis. Plant 
reduced; 2 spikelets, showing variable 
number of florets; portion of rachilla from 
which some of the florets have fallen, X3. 



226 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



rhizomes, with short distichous blades and narrow few- 
flowered panicles of many-flowered spikelets. In regions 
where it is abundant, salt-grass is utilized for forage, but 

on account of the excess 
of mineral constituents it 
is of inferior quality. 

250. Dactylis L.— The 
single species, D. glome- 
rata, a native of Europe, 
is commonly cultivated 
as a forage grass under 
the name of orchard- 
grass. It is a tussock- 
forming perennial, 2 to 4 
feet high, with flat blades 
and narrow panicles. The 
spikelets are in 1 -sided 
fascicles or small heads 
at the ends of the few 
principal branches of the 
panicle. These branches 
spread at the time of 
flowering but close at 
maturity. The lemmas 
are fringed or ciliate on 
the sharp keel. 

Dactylis glomerata L. (Fig. 
53.) Orchard-grass. Perennial, 
in large tufts without creeping rootstocks; culms erect, smooth, 2 to 
4 feet high; sheaths compressed and keeled, more or less retrorsely 
scabrous, closed for a portion of their length, sometimes nearly to 
the throat; hgule prominent, thin and papery, pointed, usually lace- 
rate, the uppermost as much as H inch long; blades flat, usually 
scabrous on both surfaces, elongated, as much as 3^ inch wide, 




Fig. 52. Distichlis spicata. Staniinate 
plant (at left) and pistillate plant (at 
right) reduced; pistillate and staminate 
spikelets. 



FESTUCE^ 



227 



tapering into a slender point; 
panicle 3 to 6 inches long, the 
branches few and stiff, singly dis- 
posed, naked below, bearing a few 
1-sided clusters of spikelets, the 
clusters being about 3^ inch wide, 
green or purplish; spikelets com- 
pressed, about M inch long usu- 
ally 3- or 4-flowered; first glume 
1-nerved, acute; second glume 
longer than the first, 3-nerved, 
acuminate, ciliate on the keel; lem- 
mas rather indistinctly 5-nerved, 
ciliate on the keel, short-awned. 
During the flowering period the 
branches are spread open by the 
turgidity of prominent cushions of 
tissue in the basal angle. Later 
these cushions shrink and the 
branches become appressed so that 
in fruit the panicle is narrow and 
almost spike-like. The tufts of 
orchard-grass soon develop at the 
base into large tussocks. In Eng- 
land this grass is known as cock's- 
foot. 

251. Poa L. — Blue-grass. 
A large genus of over 100 
species, found throughout the 
world in the cooler parts and 
in the high mountains of the 
tropics. Annuals or mostly 
perennials often with creeping 
rhizomes. Spikelets in narrow 
or open panicles, 2- to 6-flowered ; lemmas 5-nerved, awn- 
less, somewhat scarious at tip, smooth or hairy on the 
nerves, sometimes cobwebby at base. This is one of the 




Fig. 53. Dactylis glomerata. In- 
florescence, X%y spikelet, X7. 



228 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

most important genera of forage grasses. The species are 
abundant in the grazing areas of our western mountains 
and several species are cultivated. 

252. Kentucky blue-grass. — Cuhns from a few inches 
to 2 feet or more in height from slender creeping rhizomes; 
sheaths smooth; Hgule short; blades flat or somewhat 
folded, ending like most species of the genus, in a boat- 
shaped blunt point, panicle 2 to 4 inches long or sometimes 
larger, pyramidal, open, the lower branches in groups of 
about 5; spikelets 3- to 5-flowered, 4 to 5 mm. long; lemmas 
pubescent on the keel and marginal nerves, bearing a 
tuft of cobwebby hairs at base. Commonly cultivated as 
a lawn- and pasture-grass. 

Poa pratensis L. (Fig. 54.) Kentucky blue-grass. Perennial, in 
tufts but producing slender creeping rootstocks; culms slender, 
erect, smooth, terete or slightly flattened, 1 to 3 feet high; sheaths 
smooth, sometimes slightly keeled; ligule membranaceous, short, 
truncate, about 1 mm. long; blades, especially the basal, long and 
narrow, flat or usually partly folded or conduplicate, usually not 
over 4 mm. wide, the uppermost 1 to 3 inches long, appressed, 
slightly roughened on the margins and keel, especially toward the 
boat-shaped tip; panicle open, pjTamidal or oblong, 3 to 6 inches 
long, the scabrous branches naked below, the lower in whorls of 
usually 5, one being stronger; spikelets ovate or lanceolate, flat- 
tened, 4 to 6 mm. long, usually 3- to 5-flowered, the ultimate pedi- 
cels about 1 mm. long; glumes narrow, acute, the first 1-nerved, 
the second 3-nerved; lemma 5-nerved, acute, hyaline or papery and 
often purple-tinged at apex, about 4 mm. long, the keel and margi- 
nal nerves pubescent, the base bearing a tuft of cobwebby hairs. 
The boat-shaped apex of the blades is characteristic of the genus. 
Blue-grass is a native of Europe and may also be native in the 
northern parts of North America. In open dry or sterile soil the 
flowering culm may be only a few inches in height. In color the 
foliage is a dark green and does not have a blue color as the name 
would indicate. As it flowers in June, the name June-grass is 
apphed to this species in parts of the northern United States. 



FESTUCEM 



229 



253. Other economic species of Poa. — Compared 
with Kentucky blue-grass, the other species of Poa are of 
slight importance, although Can- 
ada blue-grass attains some im- 
portance locally (Par. 35). Of the 
other species 2 are advertised by 
seedsmen and are occasionally used 
in mixtures. 

Canada blue-grass {Poa com- 
pressa L.). — Culms wiry, flattened, 
with numerous creeping rhizomes, 
not tufted; panicles narrow, the 
branches in pairs. This resembles 
P. pratensis but is bluish green 
rather than dark green. Cultivated 
as a pasture-grass. Called also 
wire-grass and flat-stem. 

Rough - stalked meadow - grass 
{Poa trivialis L.). — This resembles 
P. pratensis but differs in the 
absence of rhizomes and in having 
scabrous sheaths and a long hgule. 
Sometimes cultivated as a meadow- 
grass. 

Fowl meadow-grass {Poa triflora 
Gilib.; P. serotina Ehrh.). — Culms 
1 to 4 feet high, tufted but with- 
out rhizomes; sheaths smooth; 

Fig. 54. Poa pratensis. Plant, XH; spikelet 
and floret, X5. 




230 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

panicles large and open, 4 to 12 inches long. Sometimes 
cultivated as a meadow-grass. 

Annual blue-grass (Poa annua L.). — A low-spreading 
tufted annual with soft light green foliage and small 
panicles resembling those of P. pratensis. A native of 
Europe, now a common weed throughout the warmer por- 
tions of the United States. In the eastern states, it is a 
troublesome weed in lawns, because, though it makes a 
good showing in the spring, it dies out later, leaving bare 
spots. 

Poa arachnifera Torr. Texas blue-grass. A smooth rhizome- 
bearing, dioecious perennial 1 to 2 feet high, with contracted pani- 
cles 2 to 4 inches long ; the staminate spikelets glabrous, the lemmas 
of the pistillate spikelets villous on the keel and marginal nerves, 
provided at base with a copious tuft of woolly hairs. A native of 
Texas, where it is a good but rather local range-grass. This species 
has been recommended as a winter pasture-grass for the South. 

Many native species of Poa are important constituents of moun- 
tain ranges. 

254. Festuca L. — Fescue-grass. A large genus found 
in all the cooler and arctic regions of the world. Annuals 
or perennials with narrow or open panicles of several- 
flowered spikelets; lemmas rounded on back, rather firm 
in texture, 5-nerved, acute or tapering into an awn. The 
annual species are weedy but the perennial species are 
excellent forage grasses, several species being cultivated 
as pasture-grasses. 

255. Meadow fescue. — A tufted smooth perennial 
1 to 4 feet high, with narrow panicle, 4 to 8 inches long, 
the branches spreading while in flower but contracting 
later. Commonly cultivated as a meadow- and pasture- 
grass. A form with lower culms and more simple panicle 
has been called F. pratensis Huds. In some localities 
meadow fescue is called English blue-grass. 



FESTUCEM 



231 



Festuca elatior L. (Fig. 55). Meadow fescue. 
Perennial, sometimes with short rootstocks; 
culms erect, smooth, 1 to 4 feet high; sheaths 
smooth, or sHghtly scabrous toward the apex; 
ligule a membrane 3^ mm. or less long; blades 
elongated, 2 to 5 mm. wide, scabrous on the 
upper surface, the base bearing on each side a 
more or less well-developed auricle ; panicle erect 
or nodding at the apex, 4 to 8 inches long, rather 
loose, contracted, but spreading in flower, the 
branches mostly singly disposed, bearing few 
spikelets; spikelets oblong or lanceolate, about 
3^ inch long, smooth, green, usually 7- or 8-flow- 
ered; glumes lanceolate, about half as long as 
the first floret; lemma rounded on the back, 
faintly nerved, the scarious apex acute. 

256. Sheep's fescue (F. ovina L.). — 
A densely tufted erect perennial 6 inches 
to 2 feet high with numerous slender 
firm involute basal leaves and narrow 
panicles 2 to 4 inches long, spreading in 
flower; spikelets short-awned. Common 
in Europe in many forms or closely allied 
species. Used in this country in pasture 
mixtures for sterile soil. Var. capillata 
(Lam.) Hack, has long slender rather 
soft blades. Var. duriuscula (L.) Koch, 
hard fescue, has harsh blades about 1 
mm. thick. 

257. Red fescue (F. rubra L.).— This 
differs from F. ovina in having less closely 
tufted culms, the bases somewhat de- 
cumbent or creeping. This species is also 
cultivated in meadows. Var. heterophylla 
(Lam.) Hack., various-leaved fescue, has 



Fig. 55. Festuca 
elatior. Inflorescence, 
X J4; spikelet, X4. 



232 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

slender soft leaves and is more densely tufted than red 
fescue. It is used for shaded places in la\Mis where other 
grasses will not thrive. 

Several native species of Festuca are important range grasses. 
Festuca idahoensis Elmer {F. ingrata (Hack.) Rydb.) is common in 
Oregon, Washington and Idaho. It is related to F. ovina and has 
numerous involute, stiff, scabrous blades and a rather large, spreading 
panicle, the lemmas awned. F. viridula Vasey is a green erect 
species with creeping rootstocks and awnless lemmas. It is a 
valuable range grass of the mountain meadows. 

One section of the genus includes several species of small 
annuals. One species, F. octo flora Walt., is common in dry open 
ground throughout the United States. In the western states there 
are several other species, some of which are sufficiently abundant 
in the desert regions to produce forage after the rainy season. 

258. Bromus L. — Brome-grass. A large genus, found 
mostly in the north temperate zone. Annuals or per- 
ennials with closed sheaths, and open or contracted 
panicles of comparatively large spikelets; lemmas keeled 
or rounded on the back, bifid at apex, usually awned 
from between the teeth. Several annual species have been 
introduced from Europe and have become troublesome 
weeds, especially on the Pacific coast. One species is 
called cheat or chess (B. secalinus) and is a weed in grain- 
fields in the eastern states. This species is cultivated for 
hay in Oregon and Washington. This has an open panicle 
of plump short-awned spikelets. The species of Bromus, 
even the annuals, are good forage grasses, at least when 
young. 

259. Awnless brome-grass. — An erect perennial with 
creeping rhizomes, flat blades and open panicles of slightly 
flattened spikelets, the lemmas awnless or nearly so. A 
native of Europe and cultivated in the northwestern 
states as a forage grass. 



FESTUCE^ 



233 



Bromus inermis Leyss. (Fig. 56). 
Awnless brome-grass. Perennial with 
numerous creeping rootstocks; culms 

1 to 3 feet high, smooth, leafy; sheaths 
smooth, closed nearly to the summit, 
bearing on each side at apex a point 
or auricle; ligule membranaceous, 1 to 

2 mm. long, ciUate and more or less 
toothed; blades flat, 5 to 8 mm. wide, 
somewhat scabrous; panicle 4 to 6 
inches long, somewhat open and spread- 
ing, the branches naked below, the 
lower in fascicles; spikelets about an 
inch long, brown or purplish, 8- to 10- 
flowered, shghtly flattened; first glume 
narrow, acute, 1-nerved, 5 mm. long, 
the second broader and longer, obtuse, 
3-nerved; lemma 5- to 7-nerved, the 
nerves scabrous, the apex awnless or 
short-awned. 



Rescue -grass {B. uni- 
oloides Kunth). — Schrader's 
brome-grass. An erect annual or 
biennial, with pubescent sheaths 
and a narrow panicle of com- 
pressed spikelets, the lemmas 
keeled, acuminate, awnless. A 
native of South America, culti- 
vated in our southern states for 
winter forage. 

The annual weedy species of 
Bromus are numerous and conspicuous 
on the Pacific slope. The seeds germi- 
nate in the spring and the young plants 
cover the plains and foothills with 
green. By midsummer the plants have matured and the green 
mantle has turned to brown. The fruiting florets of' some species 




Fig. 56. Bromus inermis. In- 
florescence, XM; spikelet, X3. 



234 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

with their antrorsely scabrous awns are sharp-pointed so they 
readily penetrate clothing and the wool of sheep, because of which 
these species are considered a great pest. The following key will 
distinguish the common species: 

A. Panicle contracted, dense. 
B. Awn % inch long. 

c. Culm pubescent below panicle B. rubens L. 

cc. Culm glabrous below panicle B .madritensis'L. 

BB. Awn about 3^ inch long B. hordeaceus L. 

AA, Panicle open, the branches spreading. 

B. Awn twisted and bent B. trinii Desv. 

BB. Awn not twisted and bent. 

c. Sheaths smooth B. secalinus L. 

cc. Sheaths pubescent. 

D. Awn 13^2 to 2 inches long B. villosus 

DD. Awn not over % inch long. [Forsk. 

E. First glume 1-nerved B. tectorum L. 

EE. First glume 3-nerved. 

F. Lemmas pubescent B. arenarius 

[Labill. 

FF. Lemmas glabrous. . , B. pratensis 

[Ehrh. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
Tribe XII. HORDEiE 

A SMALL tribe of about 25 genera in the temperate 
regions of both hemispheres. Spikelets 1- to several- 
flowered, sessile in spikes. The rachis is flattened or 
concave next to the spikelets, or in some genera it is 
hollowed out so that the spikelets are embedded or in- 
closed. The spike is 1 -sided in Nardus (of Eurasia), but 
symmetrical in all other genera. In Triticum and its 
allies there is 1 spikelet at each node of the rachis, and in 
Hordeum and its allies there are 2 or more. The spikelets 
are usually placed sidewise to the rachis but in Lolium 
and its allies they are placed edgewise. In these genera the 
outer glume is fully developed, but the inner (second) 
glume is reduced or wanting except in the terminal spikelet, 
where the glumes are equal. The rachis of the spike dis- 
articulates in Sitanion, Scribneria, Lepturus and a few 
species of Elymus and Agropyron. In some species of 
Elymus the glumes, except in the terminal spikelet, stand 
in front of the spikelet instead of at the 2 sides. According 
to some these 2 organs are the 2 portions of a single deeply 
cleft glume (Par. 153) or represent branchlets. In some 
species of Elymus and especially in Sitanion the glumes 
are very slender, extending into long awns. In Sitanion 
the glumes are commonly split into 2-several slender awns. 
The blades of this tribe usually bear on each side at the 
base an appendage or auricle. To this tribe belong our 
most important cereals. 

(235) 



236 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

Key to the Genera of Horded 

A. Spikelets more than 1 at each node of the rachis. 

B. Spikelets 3 at each node of the rachis, 1- 

fiowered, the lateral pair pedicelled, usually 

reduced Hordeum 

BB. Spikelets 2 at each node of the rachis, 2- to 6- (Par. 268). 

flowered, all alike, 
c. Glumes none or reduced to short bristles; 

spikes very loose Hystrix. 

cc. Glumes usually equaling the florets; spikes 
dense. 
D. Rachis continuous; glumes broad or 

narrow, entire Elymus 

DD. Rachis disarticulating at maturity, (Par. 269). 

glumes slender, extended into long 
awns, these and the awns of the 
lemmas making the spike very bristly .Sitanion. 
AA. Spikelets solitary at each node of the rachis. 
B. Spikelets placed edgewise to the rachis; 
glume 1 except in the terminal spikelet. 

c. Spikelets several-flowered Lolium 

cc. Spikelets 1-flowered. Introduced on the (Par. 261). 

Pacific coast Monerma. 

BB. Spikelets placed flatwise to the rachis; 
glumes in pairs, 
c. Spikelets 1-flowered; spikes slender, terete. 

D. Lemmas awnless Lepturus. 

DD. Lemmas awned. Pacific coast Scribneria. 

cc. Spikelets 2- to several-flowered. 

D. Plants perennial (as to species of the 

United States) Agropyron 

DD. Plants annual. (Par. 262). 

E. Glumes ovate, 3-nerved Triticum 

(Par. 263). 

EE. Glumes subulate, 1-nerved Sec ale 

(Par. 267). 

261. Lolium L. — Rye-grass. A small genus of temper- 
ate Eurasia. Spikelets several-flowered, somewhat resem- 
bling those of Festuca, the lemma often awned. The 
genus can be easily distinguished by the position of the 
spikelets, edgewise to the rachis. The second glume being 
next the rachis is usually suppressed but is present and 
equal to the first in the terminal spikelet. Two closely 
related species are used for lawns, meadows and pastures. 



BORDEM 



237 



These are perennial rye-grass, L. perenne, 
Italian rye-grass, L. muUiflorum (L. italicum) 



an( 



Lolium perenne L. Perennial rye-grass. Perennial; 
culms tufted, erect, smooth, 1 to 2 feet high; sheaths 
smooth; Hgule a short membrane, less than 1 mm. long; 
blades flat, narrow, mostly less than 4 mm. wide, smooth, 
or scabrous above, the base extended on each side into an 
auricle; spike slender, as much as a foot long; spikelets 
usually 8- to 10-flowered somewhat longer than the 5 to 
8 mm. long glume, the lemmas awnless. 

Lolium muUiflorum Lam. (L. italicum A. Br.). (Fig. 

57.) Differs from the preceding in having awned lemmas 

and usually a greater number of florets to the spikelet. 

This species is now common in grass land and waste 

places on the Pacific coast, where it is sometimes called 

Austrahan rye-grass. These species 

are both used in lawn mixtures in the 

East. The young plants resemble 

blue-grass but may be distinguished 

by the darker green color, the usually 

larger size and especially by the glossy 

surface of the blades, and by the 

absence of the boat-shaped tip. The 

auricles are characteristic when the 

shoots are sufficiently developed. 

Lolium temulentum L. Darnel. 
An annual with glumes as much as 
an inch long, longer than the 5- to 
7-flowered spikelets. Introduced from 
Europe. Not common, but of interest 
because of the presence in the fruit of 
a narcotic poison said to be due to a 
fungus. This plant is said to be the 
one referred to in scripture in the 
parable of the tares (Henslow, 'Tlants of the Bible," p. 119). 

262. Agropyron Goertn. — Wheat-grass. A genus of 
about 50 species of the temperate regions. Spikelets 
several-flowered, 1 at each node of the rachis. Distin- 




FiG. 57. Lolium multiflorum. 
Inflorescence, X H; spikelet with 
portion of rachis, X3. 



238 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



guished from Triticum by the narrow pointed or awned 
glumes. The American species are perennials. Couch- 
grass, A. repens (L.) Beauv. (Fig. 58), is a troublesome 
weed introduced from Europe. It prop- 
agates by creeping rhizomes. A similar 
native species, A. Smithii Rydb., is found 
in alkali soil in the western states and 
furnishes a fair quality of hay. Another 
species, A. tenereum Vasey, is a bunch-grass 
of the same region. This species has been 
introduced into cultivation and is sold by 
seedsmen under the name of slender wheat- 
grass. This has erect stems 2 to 4 feet 
high, with slender spikes 2 to 6 inches 
long, or even longer, broad-nerved awn- 
pointed glumes nearly as long as the spike- 
let, and short-awned or awnless lemmas. 

263. Triticum L.— Wheat. A small 
genus of annuals distinguished from Agro- 
pyron by the broad several-toothed or 
awned glumes. The best known species is 
the common wheat (T. vulgaris; T. sativum) 
of which there are numerous varieties. 
Those varieties bearing long awns are 
called bearded wheats; those in which the 
awn is short or none are called beardless 



Fig. 58. Agropyron repens. Inflorescence and 
rhizomes, XH; spikelet, X3. 




HORDEM 



239 



or smooth wheats. In all the 
true wheats, the grain is free 
from the lemma and palea 
(the chaff). 

264. Spelt and emmer are 
considered by some as varie- 
ties of wheat, by others as 
distinct species, the first being 
T. spelta, the second T. dicoc- 
cum (Fig. 59). They differ 
from wheat in having an artic- 
ulated rachis, and grains per- 
manently inclosed in the 
glumes and lemmas. When 
threshed, the spike breaks up 
into the internodes of the 
rachis, each with a spikelet 
attached. In wheat, the 
threshing process removes the 
grains from the spikelets and 
leaves the rachis entire. The 
head or spike of emmer is 
compact, resembling that of 
bearded wheat. The spike of 
spelt is more slender and loose. 

Emmer has been intro- 
duced into cultivation in recent years as a dry-land pro- 
duct in the Great Plains region, the grain being used in 
the same manner as barley for feeding stock. The statistics 
for this crop are given in the census report under "emmer 
and spelt.'' Since the amount of spelt cultivated is 
insignificant, the figures apply mostly to emmer. The 
production of. this crop is given in Table XI (Par. 9). 




Fig. 59. Triticum dicoccum. In- 
florescence (head), X 3^2. spikelet 
with a disarticulated joint of the 
rachis, X2. 



240 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

265. Origin of wheat. — None of the cultivated wheats 
is now found growing spontaneously, that is, as a native 
plant. Various theories have been advanced as to their 
origin. Some botanists have supposed them to be derived 
from wild species now extinct or possibly existing in unex- 
plored regions. Others have thought them to be the 
greatly changed descendants from common wild species 
such as Triticum ovatum Rasp. {Mgilops ovata L.). (See 
Fabre, Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. 15: 167. 1854.) Schulz has 
recently suggested the probable origin of the cultivated 
forms. He considers the cultivated wheats to be culture- 
form groups rather than species, subspecies or races. 
Nomenclatorially he recognizes the following: T. mono- 
coccum, T. spelta, T. dicoccum, T. vulgare, T. compactunif 
T. turgidurn, T. durum, T. polonicum. The first-mentioned, 
T. monococcum, he believes is derived from the wild T. 
cegilopoides Bal., and the third, T. dicoccum, from the wild 
T. dicoccoides Korn., recently discovered by Aaronsohn 
in the region of Mount Hermon, Palestine. (See Cook, 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. PL Ind. Bull. 274. 1913. Aaronsohn, 
Op. cit. 180: 38. 1910. Verh. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien. 59: 485. 
1909. Altneuland Monatschr. Wirtsch. Erschl. Palas- 
tinas 213. 1906. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 56: 237. 1909. 
Schweinfurth, Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 26a: 309. 1908.) 
The second, T. spelta, he considers to have been derived 
from an as yet undiscovered wild species. Furthermore he 
thinks that T. vulgare and T. compactum were derived from 
T. spelta, and that T. turgidum, T. durum and T. poloni- 
cum were derived from T. dicoccum. (Schulz, Mitt. Natf. 
Ges. Halle 1: 14. 1911.) Aaronsohn considers T. dicoccum 
to be the prototype of true wheat and the former to be 
derived from T. dicoccoides (U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur, PL 
Ind. Bull. 180 : 41. 1910). 



HORDED 



241 



Triticum 3estivum L. (T.vulgare Y ill.; T. sativum Lam.). (Fig. 
60). Wheat. Annual; culms tufted, erect, smooth or pubescent at 
the nodes, 2 to 3 feet high; sheaths smooth or slightly scabrous, or 
the lowermost pubescent; hgule membranaceous, about 1 mm. 
long; blades flat, about }/^ inch wide, more or less scabrous on the 
upper surface, the base extended on either side into points or auri- 
cles, these, at least in. the young leaves, 
ciliate; spike dense, more or less 4-sided, 
1 to 4 inches long; spikelets overlap- 
ping, single at the nodes, in 2 rows 
alternating on the zigzag continuous 
rachis, usually 3- to 5-flowered, ovate, 
somewhat compressed; glumes coria- 
ceous, shorter than the spikelets, un- 
symmetrical or 1-sided, the outer side 
being broader, and bearing an obtuse 
or rounded shoulder or tooth, the sharp 
keel ending in a point or awn; lemmas 
similar to the glumes but nearly sym- 
metrical, more or less 3-toothed, the 
central tooth sometimes extending into 
a long awn or beard. This includes all 
the forms that are grown in America 
under the name of wheat. There are 
numerous varieties differing in length 
of awn, color of the head and of the 
grain, in pubescence of the spikelets, 
in the shape of the head, and many 
other characters. The only other species 
of the genus grown commercially in 
America is emmer {T . dicoccum 
Schrank). Durum wheat is considered 
to be a variety of T. aestivum. 

Two other species are grown to a 
limited extent in southeastern Europe. 
These are Polish wheat (T. polonicum L.) in which the glumes are 
papery in texture and longer than the spikelet; and einkorn (T. 
monococcum L.) with disarticulating rachis and slender long-awned 
heads, the lateral tooth of the glumes pointed, the palea spht- 




FiG. 60. Triticum aestivum. In- 
florescence (head), X Vi', spikelet 
with portion of attached rachis, 
X2. 



242 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

ting into 2 parts, the spikelets much compressed, 2-flowered but 
usually 1-seeded. 

266. Classification of the wheats. — The cultivated 
forms of the genus Triticum may be divided into 2 series: 
(1) The spelt wheats, in which the axis disarticulates and 
the grains are permanently inclosed in the spikelets. This 
group includes spelt (7". spelta L.), emmer (T. dicoccum 
Schrank) and einkorn (T. monococcum L.), the latter, 
grown to a limited extent in certain parts of Europe, being 
distinguished by the 1-awned spikelets with usually only 
1 grain. (2) The naked wheats, in which the axis is 
entire and the grains not permanently inclosed by the 
spikelets. In these the grain can be separated from the 
chaff by threshing. The group includes Polish wheat 
{T. polonicum L. ), durum wheat {T. durum Desf.), Eng- 
lish wheat (T. turgidum L.) and the numerous varieties of 
wheat grown in America, T. cestivum L., T. vulgar e VilL, 
and T. sativum Lam. (See Jessen, Deutschlands Graser 
191. 1863.) 

Hackel's classification. — Hackel divides the cultivated 
wheats into 3 species on more technical botanical char- 
acters: 

A. Terminal spikelet aborted, often scarcely 
visible. Palea falling into 2 parts at maturity. 

Lateral teeth of glumes acute 1. T. monococ- 

AA. Terminal spikelets developed; palea remaining [cum. 

entire; lateral teeth of the glumes obtuse. 
B. Glumes shorter than any of the lemmas, 

chartaceous; palea as long as lemmas 2. T. sativum. 

BB. Glumes as long as or longer than any of the 
lemmas, papery, lanceolate; palea of the 
lowest flower half as long as its lemma 3. T. polonicum. 

Triticum sativum (the equivalent of T. CBstivum) he 
divides as follows into 3 groups which he calls races: 



HORDED 243 

A. Rachis articulate at maturity; grain entirely 

inclosed by the glumes, not falling out when 

threshed (however it is not grown to the 

glumes) . 

B. Spikes loose, almost 4-sided when seen from 

above; glumes broadly truncate in front, 

with a very short, obtuse middle tooth, 

obtusely keeled 1 . T. sativum 

BB. Spikes very dense, laterally compressed; [spelta Hack, 
glumes tapering, with an acute middle 

tooth; sharply keeled 2. T. sativum di- 

AA. Rachis not articulated at maturity; grain [coccum Hack, 
visible between the somewhat open fruiting 

lemma and palea, easily falling out 3. T. sativum 

[tenax Hack. 

The third race, which includes the common wheats, he 

divides in four subraces : 

A. Glumes distinctly keeled only in the upper 
half, rounded or only slightly keeled in the 
lower half. 
B. Spikes long, more or less loose, somewhat 

dorsally compressed 1. T. sativum 

[vulgar e Hack. 

BB. Spikes short, dense, distinctly 4-sided 2. T. sativum 

AA. Glumes sharply keeled at the base. [compacfwm Hack. 

B. Grain short, thick, not compressed, broadly 

truncate above 3. T. sativum tur~ 

BB. Grain oblong, narrower, somewhat laterally [gidum Hack. 

compressed, and somewhat acuminate 4. T. sativum 

[durum Hack. 

The first includes most of the common wheats, of 
which there are numerous varieties. The second includes 
the club wheats grown in the Palouse country of Wash- 
ington and the adjacent regions. The third includes 
English wheat, especially grown in Mediterranean coun- 
tries. The fourth includes the durum wheat, recently 
introduced and now successfully grown in the Great 
Plains region. (See Hackel in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzen- 
fam. II. 2:80. 1887. True Grasses, 180. 1890.) 

Kornicke's classification is similar to that of Hackel, 
but he recognizes the races and subraces as species. 
(Kornicke, Handb. Getreidebaues, 1:40. 1885 ) 



244 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 



267. Secale L. — Rye. A small genus of southern 
Europe and southwestern Asia including 2 wild species 
and the cultivated rye. Rachis continuous in the cul- 
tivated species, disarticulating in the wild species ; spikelets 
mostly 2-flowered, single at the nodes, awned, the glumes 

narrow. One wild species is an 
annual, the other, S. montanum Guss., 
is a perennial. From the latter has 
been developed, according to some 
botanists, the cultivated rye. 

Secale cereale L. Rye. (Fig. 61). Annual; 
culms usually pubescent below the spike, 
otherwise smooth, usually glaucous, erect, 
tufted, 3 to 5 feet high; sheaths smooth; 
ligule membranaceous, short, about 1 mm. 
long, toothed, often lacerate; blades flat, 
3^ to ^ inch wide, scabrous, bearing on 
each side at base a small point or auricle; 
spike 3 to 5 inches long, somewhat nodding; 
the rachis-joints pubescent on the edges; 
spikelets 2-flowered, or with a third rudi- 
mentary floret; glumes narrow, 1-nerved, 
almost subulate, scabrous on the keel; 
lemma lanceolate, much-compressed, 5- 
nerved, ciliate with stilT hairs on the keel 
and exposed margin, unsymmetrical, the 
outer half broader and more distinctly 
Fig. 61. Secale cereale. nerved, the apex tapering into a straight 

Inflorescence (head),XH; i, i. „ -^^u i 

spikelet, X2. awn about an mch long. 

268. Hordeum L. — Barley. A small genus of temper- 
ate regions. Glumes narrow or subulate, standing in front 
of the spikelet, the 3 pairs forming a sort of involucre at 
each node of the rachis; lemmas awned. The most impor- 
tant species is the cultivated barley {H. vulgar e), an 
annual with close spikes like those of wheat, the spikelets 




HORDED 



245 



long-awned. When all 3 spikelets of each group are 
the barley is 6-rowed; when 
only the central spikelet is 
fertile the barley is 2-rowed. 
In 4-rowed, or common 
barley, all the spikelets are 
fertile but the lateral rows 
of the opposite sides of the 
head overlap or intermingle 
to form a single row. Sev- 
eral species of Hordeum 
are troublesome weeds. Of 
these may be mentioned H. 
pusillum Nutt., an annual, 
and H. nodosum L., a per- 
ennial, low short -awned 
species found widely distrib- 
uted in the United States, 
and H. jubatum L. (squirrel- 
tail grass) with long-awned 
soft spikes, a perennial 
found especially westward, 
all 3 native species. Two 
species introduced from 
Europe, H. inurinum L. and 
H. Gussoneanum Pari., vari- 
ously known as fox-tail and 
wild barley, are common 
and troublesome on the 
Pacific coast. These are low 
spreading annuals, the first 
with flattened spikes and 
cihate glumes, the second 



fertile 




Fig. 62. Hordeum vulgare. Inflores- 
cence (head), XH; cluster of 3 spike- 
lets, and a single floret from the back 
showing the stipiform rachilla, X2. 



246 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

with cylindrical spikes and several setaceous glumes. All 
the species mentioned except cultivated barley have an 
articulated rachis that breaks up at maturity. 

Hordeum vulgare L. {H. sativum Jessen). (Fig. 62.) Cultivated 
barley. Annual; culms and leaves similar to those of wheat; auri- 
cles prominent, as much as 5 mm. long, glabrous; spike densely- 
flowered, usually 3 to 4 inches long, excluding the long awns or 
beards, the rachis not disarticulating at maturity; spikelets in 3's 
at each joint of the rachis; glumes about }4 inch long, narrow, the 
upper half narrowed into an awn; lemma fusiform, about % inch 
long, the upper portion narrowed into a very scabrous flat awn as 
much as 6 inches long, the rachilla of the spikelet extended behind 
the floret as a short hairy or scabrous pedicel lying in the furrow of 
the palea. In most of the forms of barley the grain is tightly 
inclosed in the lemma and palea. 

Beardless barley is a variety in which the awns are suppressed 
and converted into irregular short lobes or teeth {H. vulgare tri- 
furcatum Wenderoth). 

Schulz divides the cultivated barleys into 2 groups: (1) 
Hordeum distichum, the 2-rowed barleys, which he refers 
to H. spontaneum Koch as the wild prototype. (2) H. 
polystichum, the manj^-rowed barleys, which he refers to 
H. ischnatherum (Coss.) Schulz, as the wild prototype. 
(Mitt. Natf. Ges. Halle 1: 18. 1911.) 

269. El5nnus L. — Wild rye. A moderate-sized genus 
of temperate regions. Rachis continuous; spikelets usually 
2 at each node; glumes in pairs in front of the spikelets 
(the terminal spikelet having 2 opposite glumes) usually 
subulate or awned. 

The related genus Sitanion differs in having an articu- 
lated rachis. The glumes are usually subulate and 
extended into long awns. Several species are found in the 
western states. The mature joints of the disarticulated 
rachis with the attached spikelets are injurious to grazing 
animals, penetrating the ears, eyes and nostrils. 



BAMBUSEJE 247 

Tribe XIII. BAMBUSEiE 

270. This tribe includes the bamboos. These are 
nearly all perennial, woody, often tree-like grasses, mostly 
of wet tropical regions. The culms in the larger species 
are as much as a foot in diameter and over 100 feet in 
height. The common economic species of the tropics, 
such as Bambos Bambos (L.) Wight (Bambusa vulgaris 
Wendl.), have large hollow culms, with hard partitions 
at each node. The wood is exceedingly hard and dense. 
The hollow joints are used as utensils and the culms for a 
great variety of purposes. There are, especially in the 
American tropics, several climbing species. The young 
shoots of the large erect species of bamboos are covered 
with large deciduous scales. The shoots grow to a con- 
siderable height before branching and producing the 
ordinary foliage. Several species of bamboos are cultiva- 
ted in the United States (Par. 89). The commonest are 
Arundinaria japonica Sieb. & Zucc, and several species of 
Phyllostachys. The latter genus may be distinguished by 
the internodes, flattened on one side. The species of 
Phyllostachys seldom flower in cultivation. The spikelets 
of Arundinaria japonica are large and several-flowered. 
The only bamboo native in the United States is the wild 
cane {Arundinaria macrosperma Michx.) (Fig. 63), found 
in our southern states where it often forms large masses 
called cane-brakes. A small form of this or possibly a 
distinct species, A, tecta Muhl., is called small cane or 
scutch cane. 

The floral characters of the bamboos are of little importance 
to students, as the cultivated forms do not often flower. The critical 
study of the group is too technical for any but the expert. The 
structure of the spikelets is, however, comparatively simple. They 



248 



A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 




Fig. 63. Amndinaria macrosperma. Portion of culm with infiorescence. 
reduced; floret, palea showing lodicules, and a caryopsia, reduced. (U. b. Uept. 
Agr., Div. Agrost., BuU. No. 20.) 



BAMBUSE^ 249 

are usually 2- to 8-flowered, rarely 1-flowered, often in tufts at the 
nodes of the flowering branchlets. Glumes 2, the lower lemmas often 
sterile and gradually passing into the glumes. Blades usually short 
and rather broad and usually articulated with the sheath, and often 
with a short petiole. The stamens are 3 to 6, and the styles 2 or 3. 
The fruit is sometimes a nut or even a berry. 



CHAPTER XXV 
NOMENCLATURE 

Attention has already been called to the classification 
of plants into genera and species and the grouping of the 
genera into larger divisions, the tribes and families. The 
method of applying names to these divisions will now be 
reviewed. The language of botanical nomenclature is 
Latin. If names or words are taken from other languages 
they are latinized. 

GENERIC NAMES 

271. A generic name is a noun (or rarely an adjective 
used as a noun) and is always written with an initial 
capital. The names may be original Latin names such as 
Festuca and Hordeum, or Greek, such as Briza and 
Bromus. Or they may be derived from Latin names, as 
Digitaria (from digitus, a finger), or compounds of Latin 
words as Trisetum (tri, three, seta, sl bristle). More often 
the name is compounded from two Greek words, as 
Leptochloa {leptos, slender, chloa, grass) and Agropyron 
{agros, a field, puros, wheat). The generic name may be 
a latinized personal name, as Muhlenbergia (for Dr. 
Henry Muhlenberg, an American botanist, 1753-1815), 
and Deschampsia (for Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, a French 
botanist, 1774-1849). A few names have been taken from 
other languages than Latin or Greek without being latin- 
ized, as Sabal (a kind of palm). Such aboriginal names are 
known as barbarous names. Some of these have been 

(250) 



NOMENCLATURE 251 

latinized, as Ananas, Ananassa (the pineapple). Several 
generic names of grasses with their derivations are given 
below: 

Erianthus (Greek, eriorij wool, anthos, flower). 

Manisuris (Greek, manos, slender, oura, tail). 

Andropogon (Greek, aner, man, pogon, beard). 

Paspalum (Greek name for millet). 

Panicum (an ancient Latin name for foxtail miUet). 

Echinochloa (Greek, echinos, hedgehog, chloa, grass). 

Anthoxanthum (Greek, anthos, flower, xanthos, yellow). 

Stipa (Greek, stupe, tow.) 

Aristida (Latin, arista, an awn). 

Sporobolus (Greek, spora, seed, bollein, to cast forth), 

Agrostis (Greek, agros, a field, also a kind of grass). 

Calamagrostis (Greek, kalamos, a reed, agrostis, a grass). 

Ammophila (Greek, ammos, sand, philein, to love). 

Avena (classical Latin name). 

Danthonia (for Danthoine, a French botanist). 

Spartina (Greek, a cord). 

Chloris (the goddess of flowers). 

Bouteloua (for Boutelou, a Spanish horticulturist). 

Bromus (Greek, hromay food). 



SPECIFIC NAMES 

272. The specific name may be (1) an adjective, (2) 
a noun in the genitive case, (3) a nomi in apposition. An 
adjective name being a modifier of the generic name, must 
agree with that in gender, and the ending changes accord- 
ing to the rules of the Latin grammar governing inflection. 
The specific adjective may be a Latin adjective or a 
latinized Greek adjective or it may be derived from a per- 
son or a place. 

A few examples are appended to illustrate the adjective 
specific name : 



252 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

Bromus erectus Panicum virgatum. 

Bromus arvensis. Panicum capillare. 

Bromus purgans. Panicum anceps. 

Festuca rubra. Panicum agrostoides, 

Festuca occidentalism Panicum prsecocius. 

Festuca nutans. Panicum Wilcoxianum. 

Festuca elatior. Panicum tennesseense. 

273. Nouns in the genitive. — Specific names in the 
genitive are usually in the singular and are usually proper 
names. It is common for botanists to name a plant for 
the collector, as Panicum Werneri. Whether or not the 
specific name takes one or two i's in the genitive is a matter 
of taste or euphony. If the name Smith is latinized to 
Smithus in the nominative it becomes Smithi in the 
genitive; if it is latinized to Smithius, it becomes Smithii. 
In rare cases the genitive plural is used for personal 
names, as Lindsaya Sarasinorum, for the brothers Sarasin. 
Occasionally a common noun is genitive plural, as Bromus 
tectorum. Further examples are given below : 

Panicum Huachucx. Eriogonum Thompscmse, 

Panicum tsugetorum. Panicum virgultorum, 

Panicum Leibergii. Viola viarum. 

Muhlenbergia Schreberi. Uromyces Trifolii, 
Agropyron Richardsonis. 

274. Nouns in apposition are not inflected when used 
as specific names since they are always in the nominative 
case. Such specific names are usually old generic or other 
proper names, as Arundo Donax, Capriola Dactylon, Hys- 
trix Hystrix and Achillea Millefolium. There are a few 
specific names that consist of two words, the first in the 
nominative and the second in the genitive, as Echinochloa 
Crus-galli, Apera spica-venti, Elymus caput-medusce. The 
two portions of the specific name are usually joined by a 



NOMENCLATURE 253 

hyphen. Similarly, the specific name may be composed 
of two parts having other relations, as Opuntia Ficus- 
indica, Puccinia Marice-Wilsoni, Polypodium Donnell- 
Smithii. An extreme case is Prosaptia Frederici et Pauli. 
Native names of plants have been used as specific names 
without being latinized, giving rise to such names as 
Vigna Catjang and DoUchos Lablah. Another category of 
nominatives as specific names is illustrated by words end- 
ing in cola (an inhabitant of) such as Poa saxicola, 
Astragalus monticola, Panicum oricola, P. sphagnicola. 

275. Names of a lower category. — Subdivisions of the 
species are sometimes recognized, these being, subspecies, 
variety, subvariety and form. The names used to indicate 
these subdivisions are formed in the same manner as 
specific names. If the name is an adjective it should agree 
with the genus in gender. The usual subdivision of the 
species is the variety. There are two general methods of 
writing the names of the subdivisions of the species. Most 
European and many American botanists write the name, 
for example, thus: Festuca rubra var. multiflora. The 
other method, used by many American botanists, is to 
recognize but one named category below the species, to 
call this the subspecies, and to write the name as a trino- 
mial, thus: Festuca rubra multiflora. 

276. Transferring specific names. — As indicated under 
Classification, the botanist's conception of a species or of 
its relation to other species may change as his knowledge 
concerning these species increases, and the opinions of 
different botanists are not infrequently in disagreement 
concerning the same species. Consequently it may 
become necessary to transfer a species from one genus to 
another, thus causing a corresponding change in the name. 
The specific name is retained under the new genus pro- 



254 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

vided there is not already in that genus a species with the 
same name. If the specific name is an adjective its end- 
ing must be changed when necessary to agree in gender 
with the new genus. Thus Panicumfrumentaceum becomes 
Echinochloa frumentacea. 

AUTHORS OF NAMES 

277. The student will observe after the name of a 
genus or species, where these are written formally, the 
name of a person either in full or abbreviated. This is 
the name of the author of the genus or species, that is, 
the name of the person first describing the genus or spe- 
cies, or who first applied to these groups the name as it 
stands. For convenience the name of the author is usually 
abbreviated unless it consists of one syllable, or is not 
often used, or unless its abbreviation would be ambiguous. 

A few common abbreviations are given below. The 
name is usually abbreviated to the vowel of the second 
syllable. A few well-known names are further abbreviated. 

Beauv. — Beauvois. 

R. Br. — Robert Brown. 

DC— De CandoUe. 

EU.— Elliott. 

H.B.K. or HBK.— Humboldt, Bonpland and Kunth. 

L. or Linn. — Linnaeus or Linne. 

Michx. — Michaux. 

Muhl. — Muhlenberg. 

Nutt.— NuttaU. 

Torr. — Torrey. 

Walt.— Walter. 

278. Use of parentheses. — Recent custom sanctions 
the use of the parentheses to indicate the original author 
of a specific or varietal name. A name written thus, 



NOMENCLATURE 255 

Koderia cristata (L.) Pers., indicates that Persoon was 
the author of the accepted combination and that Linnaeus 
was the author of the name cristata under some other 
genus, in this case under Aira. Persoon transferred the 
species to Koeleria. If a variety has been raised to a 
species, or the reverse, the parentheses are used to indi- 
cate the original author. If the parentheses are not used, 
as is the case in most of the older works, the name retained 
is the author of the combination. Among zoologists the 
custom often prevails of retaining only the original author 
in parantheses, omitting the author of the combination. 
The use of the parentheses is often referred to as double 
citation. 

CAPITALIZATION 

279. As previously stated, the generic name always 
begins with a capital letter. The specific or varietal name 
begins with a small letter unless the word is a proper 
name. Many botanists decapitalize all specific names 
regardless of derivation. The latter system conduces to 
uniformity but violates the rules of the Latin language, 
which is the language of botanical nomenclature. Con- 
forming to the first system, specific names are capitalized 
if they are proper nouns. Such nouns may be derived 
from a personal name, or they may be proper names such 
as are mentioned under nouns in apposition. Some authors 
capitalize geographic adjectives, as Virginiensis and Caro- 
linianus, but this is not required by Latin usage. 

Decapitalization of proper names may lead to ambiguity. The 
specific name Leonis would indicate that the species was named for 
a man by the name of Leon, but if the name is decapitalized, leonis, 
it may mean merely, of the lion. More serious is the decapitalization 
of a name like Millefolium (Achillea Millefolium). This is an old 



256 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

proper name and when used as a specific name is indeclinable. If 
it is decapitalized it is at once confused with the adjective mille- 
folium, which is declinable. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

280. It is frequently necessary, or at least desirable, 
to refer to works, serials and periodicals. For convenience, 
the titles are usually abbreviated, and the citation of 
volume and page follows a definite form. If titles are 
abbreviated it is the aim to make abbreviations under- 
standable, concise and consistent. The important words 
of the title are selected and are abbreviated as are the 
names of authors, that is, to the vowel of the second syl- 
lable. In referring to an article in a periodical, the volume 
and page of the original are given rather than a reference 
to a separate of the article. Many botanists have adopted 
the convenient system of citing the volume of a periodical 
or work in arable in bold-faced type. Following the vol- 
ume number is a colon and the page and finally the year. 

The examples given below will illustrate the system : 

Vasey, Bot. Gaz. 9: 97. 1884. 

H. B. K., Nov. Gen. & Sp. 1 : 99. 1816. 

Swartz, Prod. Veg. Ind. Occ. 23. 1788. 

Scribn. & Merr. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Circ. 35: 3. 1901. 

Beyr. in Trin. Mem. Acad. St. Petersb. VI. Sci. Nat. 1 : 341. 1834. 

Nees; DoeU in Mart. Fl. Bras. 2^: 213. 1877. 

If a botanist describes a species in the work of another, 
the name of the former is followed by ''in," as in the last 
two examples. A semicolon following an author's name 
indicates that the author proposed the name but the 
description was written by the botanist whose name fol- 
lows the semicolon. 



NOMENCLATURE 257 

VALID NAMES AND SYNONYMS 

281. The student is often disconcerted when he finds 
that a species has more than one name. It should be under- 
stood that a given species, as viewed by a given botanist, 
has but one vahd name, all other names being synonyms. 
A genus bears the name assigned to it by the botanist who 
first indicated or described it. (By common consent names 
dating publication prior to 1753 are excluded.) A later 
botanist may describe the same genus as new, not being 
acquainted with the earlier description. The second name 
then becomes a synonym. Sometimes an author describes a 
new genus and assigns to it a name which has already been 
used for an earlier genus. Such a name is a homonym, 
and can not be accepted as valid, hence the genus must 
receive a new name. A botanist may divide a genus of an 
earlier author into two or more distinct genera (generic 
concepts being opinions), in which case he retains the 
original generic name for one of the parts and assigns new 
names to the other parts. It is clear, then, that the same 
species might have two valid names according to the vary- 
ing concepts of two botanists. Barnyard-grass would be 
called Panicum Crus-galU by one botanist who considered 
Echinochloa to be a section of Panicum, and Echinochloa 
Crus-galli by another who considered the group Echino- 
chloa to constitute a distinct genus. 

Specific names are governed by the same rule, that is 
priority. The earliest name is used if there is no reason 
for rejecting it. In transferring a species from one genus 
to another the original specific name is retained unless 
there is already in the second genus a species by that 
name, in which case the transferred species receives a 
new name. 
Q 



258 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

CODES OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE 

282. Botanists have recognized the necessity of being 
governed by a definite system in nomenclatorial matters, 
and many have adopted sets of rules or codes. The best 
known of the earlier codes is that adopted at the Inter- 
national Botanical Congress held in Paris in 1867. The 
report was edited by Alphonse de Candolle and the Eng- 
lish translation is entitled "Laws of Botanical Nomencla- 
ture.'' The report should be read by all interested in 
nomenclature. 

283. Vienna code. — The most important recent code 
is that adopted by the International Botanical Congress 
held at Vienna in 1905, and entitled, "International 
Rules of Botanical Nomenclature." A few of the princi- 
ples are here excerpted in order to indicate the general 
trend of the rules. 

Botanical nomenclature begins with the "Species Plantanim" 
of Linnaeus (1753) for all vascular plants. (Art. 19.) 

However, to avoid disadvantageous changes in the nomen- 
clature of genera by the strict application of the rules of nomen- 
clature, and especially of the principle of priority in starting from 
1753, the rules provide a hst of names which must be retained in 
all cases. The list forms an appendix to the rules [usually referred 
to as "list of nomina conservanda"]. (Art. 20.) 

No one is authorized to reject, change or modify a name (or 
combination of names) because it is badly chosen, or disagreeable, 
or another is preferable or better known, or because of the existence 
of an earlier homonym which is universally regarded as non-vahd, 
or for any other motive either contestible or of little import. 
(Art. 50.) 

When a species is moved from one genus into another, its specific 
epithet must be changed if it is already borne by a vaUd species of 
that genus. (Art. 53.) 

The hst of nomina conservanda referred to under article 20 
includes the following American grass genera: 



NOMENCLATURE 259 

Tragus (1768) to be used instead of Nazia (1763). 

Leersia (1788) to be used instead of Homalocenchrus (1760). 

Hierochloe (1810) to be used instead of Savastana (1799). 

Cynodon (1805) to be used instead of Capriola (1763). 

Ctenium (1814) to be used instead of Campulosus (1810). 

Buchloe (1859) to be used instead of Bulbilis (1819). 

Lamarckia (1794) to be used instead of Achyrodes (1760). 

Glyceria (1810) to be used instead of Panicularia (1763). 

Article 50, requires the use of 

Setaria Beauv. 1807, not Ach. 1798, nor Michx. 1803, instead 
of Chsetochloa Scribn. 1897. 

Digitaria Hall. 1768, not Heist. 1763, instead of Syntherisma 
Walt. 1788. 

284. American code. — "The American Code of Botani- 
cal Nomenclature" was prepared by a Nomenclature 
Commission of the Botanical Club of the American Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science. The latest revis- 
ion of this code was made in 1907. (See Bull. Torrey Club 
34:167-178. 1907.) Although this code has been adopted 
by neither the Botanical Club nor the American Associa- 
tion, and has no official standing, it is followed more or 
less closely by many American botanists. Some of its 
important provisions are given for comparison. 

Botanical nomenclature is treated as beginning with the general 
application of binomial names of plants (Linnaeus' "Species Plan- 
tarum," 1753). (Principle 2.) 

The application of a name is determined by its reference to a 
nomenclatorial type. (Principle 4.) 

In the transfer of a species from one genus to another, the orig- 
inal specific name is retained, unless the resulting binomial has been 
previously published. (Canon 9.) 

The nomenclatorial type of a species or subspecies is the speci- 
men to which the describer originally applied the name in publica- 
tion. (Canon 14.) 

The nomenclatorial type of a genus or subgenus is the species 
originally named or designated by the author of the name. If no 



260 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

species was designated, the type is the first binomial species in 
order ehgible under the following provisions: [then follow the pro- 
visions]. (Canon 15.) 

A name is rejected when preoccupied (homonym). (Canon 16.) 
A name is rejected when there is an older valid name based on 
another member of the same group (metonym). (Canon 17.) 

285. Comparison of the two recent codes. — The two 
codes agree in taking 1753 as the starting point for priority 
and in using the earliest specific name. They disagree 
chiefly in the following: 

The Vienna Code provides a list of nomina conservanda to 
which the law of priority shall not apply. The American Code 
does not restrict the law of priority, except as indicated in 
principle 2. 

The Vienna Code allows the use of generic and specific names 
although there may be earlier but non-vahd homonyms. The Amer- 
ican Code rejects homonyms. (Digitaria and Setaria are accepted 
under the Vienna Code and rejected under the American Code; 
Bromus altissimus Pursh, 1814, not Bromus altissimus GiUb., 
1792, is accepted, under the Vienna Code, because the homonym is 
itself a synonym of another species and is not valid. Pursh's name 
is rejected under the American Code.) 

The American Code fixes the appHcation of names by reference 
to nomenclatorial types. The Vienna Code does not mention types. 
This, in practice, is a very important difference. Under the Amer- 
ican Code a specific name stands or falls according to the disposition 
of the type specimen, and a genus must always include the type 
species. 

In the present work the nomenclature, with a few 
minor exceptions, follows the American Code. 

COMMON NAMES 

286. The conmion name is the name by which a plant 
is commonly known in the language of the country. Few 
plants, and these widely and commonly cultivated spe- 



NOMENCLATURE ' 261 

cies, have definite and universally recognized common 
names in a country. The common names, wheat, oats, 
rye and barley are definite in their application. Millet 
is not a definite name as it may mean foxtail millet, proso 
millet, sorghum, or even pearl millet. Timothy is in some 
localities called herd's-grass, a name which is often applied 
to redtop. Kentucky blue-grass is also called June-grass, 
and Bermuda-grass is called wire-grass. Such terms as 
bunch-grass, wild oats, barley-grass and many others, are 
so indefinite in their application that they are of little 
value as names. 

Because of this lack of precision in applying common 
names it has been found necessary to introduce the use of 
the botanical or Latin names of the species. Furthermore 
the Latin name is applicable in all countries regardless of 
the native language. Well-known common names such as 
timothy and Johnson-grass may be sufficiently definite. 
Where common names are applied to different species in 
different parts of a country it is necessary to supplement 
the common name with the Latin name, for example, 
blue joint (Andropogon furcatus, Calamagrostis canadensis, 
or Agropyron Sfnithii), foxtail {Chcetochloa viridis, C. 
lutescens, Hordeum jubatmn, H. murinum, and other 
species), wire-grass (Capriola Dadylon, Poa compressa, 
Juncus halticus) and many others. Furthermore, a large 
number of grasses have never received common names 
or only such indefinite local names as bunch-grass and 
wild oats. For such grasses it is necessary to use the Latin 
names. That the technical Latin name of a grass is readily 
accepted by the public is shown by the wide use of Bromus 
inermis. Some botanical works have attempted, with 
doubtful success, to introduce as common names the 
translations of the Latin names. Such names may be 



262 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

occasionally used by amateur botanists, but scarcely by 
the general public. 

LIST OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES RELATING TO 
TAXONOMIC AGROSTOLOGY 

From the large number of works on this subject a few 
of the recent more important and accessible are here 
indicated. Appended to the main list which deals with 
North American agrostology is a brief list of representative 
reference works upon the grasses of foreign countries. 

Works relating to genera 

Bentham & Hooker, Genera Plantarum, 3, part 2, 1883. 

Durand, Index Generum Phanerogamorum, 1888. A systematic 

index to Bentham & Hooker's Genera Plantarum. 
Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien. Graminese by Hackel, II, 2. 

1887. There are additions by Hackel and by Pilger. 
Dalla Torre & Harms, Genera Siphonogamarum, 1900-1907. A 

systematic index to Engler & Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien. 
Hackel, True Grasses, 1890. Translated from the preceding, by 

Scribner & South worth. 
Scribner, American Grasses, III, Descriptions of the tribes and 

genera. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 20. 1900.) 
Chase, Notes on Genera of Paniceae. (In four parts, Proc. Biol. Soc. 

Washington. 1.19:183-192. 1906. 11.21:1-10. 1908. III. 

21:175-188. 1908. IV. 24 : 103-160. 1911). 

Manuals and floras 

North American Flora. Poacese by Nash (17: 77-98. 1909; 99-196. 
1912). Descriptions. 

Beal, Grasses of North America. I. 1887. II. 1896 (systematic por- 
tion) . Descriptions. 

Bailey, Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, 2 : 365-376. 1907. 
Grasses by Hitchcock. 



NOMENCLATURE 263 

Bailey, Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. Grasses by Hitchcock, 

the genera alphabetically arranged. 
Francis, Book of Grasses, an illustrated guide to the common 

grasses and the most common of the rushes and sedges. 
Britton & Brown, Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, 

Canada and the British Possessions, 2d edition. Vol. I. 1913. 

Descriptions. 
Britton, Manual of the Flora of the Northern States and Canada. 

3d edition. 1907. Descriptions. 
Gray's New Manual of Botany, 7th edition. A handbook of the 

flowering plants and ferns of the central and northeastern 

United States and adjacent Canada, by Robinson & Fernald. 

1908. Descriptions. 
Pammel, Ball & Scribner, The Grasses of Iowa. II. (Iowa Geol. 

Surv. Suppl. Rep. 1903. Issued in 1905). Descriptions. 
Small, Flora of the Southeastern United States. 1903. Descrip- 
tions. 
Scribner, Grasses of Tennessee: II. (Tenn. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 7, 

1894). Descriptions. 
Coulter & Nelson, New Manual of Botany of the Central Rocky 

Mountains. 1909. Descriptions. 
Rydberg, Flora of Colorado (Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 100. 1905). 

List with keys. 
Coulter, Botany of Western Texas (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 2: 347- 

568; grasses in part 3. 1894). Descriptions. 
Wooton & Standley, The Grasses and Grass-like Plants of New 

Mexico (N. Mex. Agr. Exp. Sta. BuU. 81. 1911). Annotated 

Hst. 
Rydberg, Catalogue of the Flora of Montana (Mem. N. Y. Bot. 

Gard. 1. 1900). Annotated hst. 
Howell, Flora of Northwest America. 1903. Descriptions. 
Piper, Flora of the State of Washington (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 

11. 1906). List with keys. 
Piper & Beattie, Flora of Southeastern Washington and Adjacent 

Idaho. 1914. Descriptions. 
Jepson, Flora of CaUfornia. Gramineae by Hitchcock (1 : 82-189, in 

part 3. 1912). Descriptions. 
Scribner & Merrill, Grasses of Alaska (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 13: 

47-92. 1910). 



264 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

Foreign floras 
Europe. 

Richter, Plantae Europae (1, 1890, includes the grasses). A 

list with synonymy. 
Ascherson & Grsebner, Synopsis der Mitteleuropaischen Flora 

(2, part 1, 1898-1902, includes the grasses). 
Briquet, Prodrome de la Flore Corse (1, 1910, includes the 

grasses). This flora of Corsica is the most recent exposition 

of European agrostology. 
Haldcsy, Conspectus Florae Graecae (3, part 2, 1904, includes 

the grasses). 
Asia. 

Hooker, Flora of British India (7, 1896, includes the grasses). 
Trimen, Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. (5, 1900, includes' 

the grasses). 
Cooke, Flora of the Presidency of Bombay (2, 1908, includes 

the grasses). 
Ridley, Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula (3, 

1907, includes the grasses). 
Franchet & Savatier, Enumeratio Plantarum in Japonia Sponte 

Crescentium. (2, 1879, includes the grasses). Annotated list. 
Forbes & Hemsley, Enumeration of All the Plants Known from 

China Proper, Formosa, Hainan, Corea, the Luchu Archi- 
pelago, and the Island of Hong-Kong (Journ. Linn. Soc. 

Bot. 26, Graminese by Rendle). Annotated list. 
Merrill, Enumeration of Philippine Gramineae (Phil. Journ. 

Sci. 1, Suppl. 5, 1906). Annotated list with keys. 
Post, Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai. 

Africa. 

Durand & Schinz, Conspectus Florae Africae (5, 1895, includes 

the grasses). Annotated list. 
Muschler, Manual Flora of Egypt (1, 1912, includes the grasses). 
Dyer, Flora Capensis (7, part 2, 1898, includes the grasses by 

Stapf). 

Australasia and Hawaii. 

Bentham, Flora Australiensis (7, 1878, includes the grasses). 
Maiden, Manual of the Grasses of New South Wales. 1898. 



NOMENCLATURE 265 

Cheeseman, Manual of the New Zealand Flora. 1906. 
Hillebrand, Flora of the Hawaiian Islands. 1888. 

Tropical North America. 

Hitchcock, Mexican Grasses in the United States National 

Herbarium (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 17:181-389. 1913). 

An annotated list with keys. 
Grisebach, Flora of the British West Indian Islands. 1864. 

Descriptions. 
Hitchcock, Catalogue of the Grasses of Cuba. (Contr. U. S. 

Nat. Herb. 12:183-258. 1909). Annotated hst with keys. 
Urban, Flora Portoricensis (Symb. Ant. 4: 76-109. 1903. 

Graminese by Hackel and Pilger). An annotated hst. 

South America. 

Martius, Flora BrasiUensis (2, part 2, 1871-1877, Gramineae 

by Doell; part 3, 1878-1883, Gramineae by Hackel, and 

by Doell). 
Arechavaleta, Las Gramineas Uruguayas (Ann. Mus. Nac. 

Montevideo 1894-1897; reprint pp. 1-552). 

Monographs and Revisions 

Griffiths, The Grama Grasses: Bouteloua and Related Genera 

(Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 14: 343-428. 1912). 
Hitchcock, North American Species of Agrostis (U. S. Dept. Agr. 

Bur. PI. Ind. Bull. 68. 1905). 
Hitchcock, North American Species of Leptochloa (Op. cit. 33. 

1903). 
Hitchcock & Chase, North American Species of Panicum (Contr. 

U. S. Nat. Herb. 15. 1910). 
Kearney, Revision of the North American Species of Calamagrostis 

(U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 11. 1898). 
Merrill, North American Species of Spartina (U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. 

PI. Ind. Bull. 9. 1902). 
Nash, Genus Cenchrus in North America. (Bull. Torrey Club 

22: 298-301. 1895). 
Nash, Genus Syntherisma in North America ( Op. cit. 25 : 289-303. 

1898). 



266 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES 

Nash, Revision of the Genera Chloris and Eustachys in North 

America (Op. cit. 25: 432-450. 1898). 
Nash, Revision of the Genus Triplasis (Op. cit. 25: 561-565. 1898). 
Piper, North American Species of Festuca (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 

10: 1-48. 1906). 
Scribner, The Genus Sphenopholis (Rhodora, 8: 137-146. 1906). 
Scribner & Merrill, North American Species of Chaetochloa (U. S. 

Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 21. 1900). 
Scribner & Smith, Native and Introduced Species of the Genera 

Hordeum and Agropyron (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 

4: 23-36. 1897). 
Shear, Revision of the North American Species of Bromus Occurring 

North of Mexico. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 23. 

1900). 
Smith, Synopsis of the Genus Sitanion (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. 

Agrost. Bull. 18. 1899). 



INDEX 



Achyrodes aureum, 220. 
^gilops ovata, 240. 
^gopogon, 173. 
Agropyron, 27, 235, 236, 237. 

repens, 238. 

Smithii, 39, 238. 

spicatum, 28. 

tenerum, 45, 238. 
Agrostideae, 156, 196. 
Agrostis, 198, 203. 

alba, 203, 

maritima, 205. 
vulgaris, 204, 205. 

canina, 205. 
Agrostology, economic, 2. 

list of works on, 262. 

systematic, 3, 94. 
Aira, 208. 
Alcohol, 11, 12. 
Alfalfa, 41. 

production of, 16. 
by states, 85. 
Alfilaria, 26. 
Alopecurus, 196, 197, 202. 

pratensis, 202, 203. 
Ammophila, 198, 206. 

arenaria, 144, 148, 206. 
as sand-binder, 71. 
Amphicarpon, 177. 
Anastrophus, 180. 
Anatomy, gross, 96, 
Andropogon, 27, 165, 169, 170. 

Elliottii, 105. 

furcatus, 39, 169. 

halepensis, 170. 

scoparius, 39, 40, 169. 

Sorghum, 171. 

virginicus, 169. 
Andropogonese, 155, 164. 
Anthaenantia, 177. 
Anthochloa, 222. 

colusana, 106. 
Anthoxanthum, 192, 193. 

aristatum, 192. 

odoratum, 192. 

Puelii, 192. 
Apera, 198. 



Arid region, 83. 
Aristida, 135, 196, 199. 

longiseta, 199. 

scabra, 199. 

weedy species of, 78. 
Arrhenatherum, 209, 212. 

elatius, 212. 

bulbosum, 142, 212. 
Arundinaria japonica, 69, 247. 

macrosperma, 247-248, 

tecta, 247. 
Arundinella, 175. 
Arundo, 219, 220, 224. 

Donax, 224. 
Atriplex, 21. 
Auricles, 108. 

Authors of botanical names, 254. 
Avena, 209. 

barbata, 46, 211. 

fatua, 46, 211. 
glabrata, 46, 211. 

nuda, 210. 

sativa, 210. 

sterilis, 211. 

strigosa, 211. 
Avenese, 156, 208. 
Awns, 126-127, 134. 
Axonopus, 178, 180. 

compressus, 180, 

Bamboos, 69, 74, 247. 

scales of, 109-110. 
Bambos Bambos, 247, 
Bambusa vulgaris, 247. 
Bambusea;, 156, 247. 
Barley, 244-245. 

fruit of, 139. 

grass, 77. 

wild, 245. 
Beach grass, 144, 206. 

as sand-binder, 71. 
Beckmannia, 214. 
Beggar-weed, Florida, 53. 
Bent, creeping, 205. 

Rhode Island, 204, 205. 
Bermuda-grass, 30-32, 45, 214-215. 

crop area, 81. 



(267) 



268 



INDEX 



Bermuda lawns, 61-63. 

soil-binder, 69. 

weed, 78. 
Bibliography, 256. 
Billion-dollar grass, 49, 184. 
Bindweed, 75. 
Blade, 104, 106. 

auricles, 108. 

nervation of, 107. 
Blepharidachne, 221. 
Blepharoneuron, 198. 
Blue-grass, 30-31, 45, 227. 

annual, 66, 230. 

Canada, 34-35, 229. 

English, 34, 230. 

for lawns, 61-62. 

Kentucky, 228. 

Texas, 230. 
Blue joint, 39, 206. 

stem, 39. 
big, 169. 
Colorado, 39. 
little, 39, 40, 169. 
Bouteloua, 213, 214, 216. 

curtipendula, 39, 217. 

gracilis, 142, 216. 

hirsuta, 217. 

oligostachya, 216. 
Brachiaria, 178. 
Brachyelytrum, 197. 
Bracts, 109, 110. 
Briza, 222. 
Brome, awnless, 33, 232-233. 

grass, 33, 232. 
annuals, 26. 
weeds, 77. 
Schrader's, 233. 

Hungarian, 33. 
Bromus, 219, 224, 232. 

arenarius, 234. 

commutatus, 77. 

hordeaceus, 77, 234. 

inermis, 33, 233. 

madritensis, 234. 

pratensis, 234. 

rubens, 77, 234. 

secalinus, 50, 77, 232, 234. 

tectorum, 77, 234. 

Trinii, 234. 

unioloides, 233. 

villosus, 77, 234. 

corn, 170, 172. 

millet, 50, 182. 

sedge, 169. 
Buchloe dactyloides, 218. 
Buckwheat, 7. 
Buffalo-grasa, 27, 143, 218. 



Buffalo-grass for lawna, 64. 
Bulbilis, 213, 218. 

dactyloides, 143, 217-218. 
Bulblets, propagation by, 139. 
Bunch-grasses, 28, 45, 145. 
Burro-grass, 220. 
Burs, 135. 

sand, 187. 

Cactus, prickly pear, cultivation of, 21. 
Calamagrostis, 196, 198, 205-206. 

canadensis, 39, 206. 

rubescens, 206. 

Suksdorfii, 206. 

scabra, 205, 206. 

Langsdorfii, 206. 
Calamovilfa, 198. 

longifolia, 144. 
Callus, 125, 134, 135. 
Campulosus, 214. 
Canada thistle, 75. 
Canary-grass, 194. 
reed, 39, 194. 

seed, 195. 
Cane, wild, 247. 

scutch, 247. 
Capitalization of botanical names, 255. 
Capriola, 214. 

Dactylon, 214-215. 
Carpet-grass, 32, 35, 180. 
for lawns, 63. 
stolons of, 102. 
Caryopsis, 6, 129, 138. 
Catabrosa, 222. 
Cenchrus, 135, 176, 177, 187. 

carolinianum, 187. 

tribuloides, 187. 
Cereals, value and production of, 8-11. 
Chsetium, 176. 
Chsetochloa, 176, 177, 184. 

italica, 7, 184, 185, 195. 

lutescens, 184. 

viridis, 184. 
Cheat, 50, 77. 
Chenopodium Quinoa, 7. 
Chess, 50, 77. 
Chlorides, 156, 213. 
Chloris, 214, 216. 

Gayana, 216. 
Chrysopogon, 165. 
Cinna, 196, 198. 
Circium arvense, 75. 
Circumpolar distribution, 149. 
Classification, 151-158. 

characters used in, 157. 

natural, 19. 

of forage plants, 22. 



INDEX 



269 



Clover, 41. 

alsike, 41^2. 

Bokhara, 53. 

bur. 32, 41. 

crimson, 41, 52. 

Japan, 32, 41-42. 

production of, 16. 
by states, 84. 

red, 41-42. 

sweet, 41-i2, 53. 

true, 41. 

white, 41-i2. 
Cob, corn, morphology of, 116. 
Cock's-foot grass, 216, 227. 
Code, American, 259. 

Vienna, 258. 
Codes of botanical nomenclature, 258. 

comparison of American and Inter- 
national, 260. 
Coix, 159, 162. 

lacryma-Jobi, 162. 
Collar of leaf, 105. 
Colorado-grass, 50, 183. 
Cord-grass, 39, 40. 
Corms, 102, 141. 
Corn-cob, morphology of, 116. 

history of, 161-162. 

origin of, 161. 

used for hay and forage, 48-49. 

varieties of, 161. 
Cortaderia, 219, 220, 224. 

argentea, 224. 

jubata, 224. 
Cottea, 219. 
Couch-grass, 78, 238. 
Cowpea, 51. 
Crab-grass, 50, 148, 181. 

weed, 66, 76-77. 
Creeping bent for lawns, 61-62. 
Crested dog's-tail, 220. 
Crop-grass, 181. 
Crowfoot-grass, 76. 
Culm, 99. 

Curly mesquite, 27, 173. 
Cymbopogon, 166, 169. 

citratus, 170. 

Nardus, 114, 170. 
Cynodon dactylon, 215. 
Cynosurus cristatus, 220. 

Dactylis, 222, 226. 

glomerata, 226. 
Dactyloctenium, 213. 
Danthonia, 209. 
Darnel, 237. 
Deschampsia, 209. 
Deserts, 144-145. . 



Diarrhena, 221. 
Dichanthelium, 182. 
Digitaria humifusa, 181. 
Dissanthelium, 221. 
Distichlis, 219, 220, 225. 

spicata, 225. 
Distribution, circumpolar, 149. 

generic, 149-150. 

geographical, 147-150. 

of grasses, 148. 

of species, 148-149. 
Dunes, sand, 143-144. 
Duration, 99. 
Durra, 170,. 172. 

Echinochloa, 176, 179, 183. 

colonum, 184. 

Crus-galli, 106, 183. 

frumentacea, 183-184. 

sabulicola, 146. 
Ecology, 133-150. 
Egyptian corn, 170. 
Einkorn, 241, 242. 
Eleusine, 214. 

indica, 148. 
Elionurus, 165. 
Elymus, 235, 236, 246. 

arenarius, 144. 

canadensis, 39. 

flavescens, 144. 

glaucus, 39. 

virginicus, 39. 
Embryo, 131, 136. 
Emmer, 239, 242. 

fruit of, 139. 
Endosperm, 131. 

Environment, adaptation to, 139. 
Epiblast, 136. 
Epicampes, 198. 

rigens, 202. 
Eragrostis, 219, 222, 225. 

abyssinica, 225. 

cilianensis, 225. 

megastachya, 225. 
Erianthus, 165, 167. 

divaricatua, 168. 

Ravennse, 167. 
Eriochloa, 176, 178. 
Erodium cicutarium, 26. 
Esparto, 73-74, 200. 
Euchlaena, 159, 160. 

mexicana, 160. 
Eulalia, 68. 

japonica, 166. 
Eurotia lanata, 21. 

Evolution, doctrine of, applied to 
classification, 151. 



270 



INDEX 



Fagopyrum esculentum, 7. 
Farm crops, value of, 4. 
Fescue-grass, 230. 
for lawns, 63. 
meadow, 34, 230, 231. 
red, 231. 
sheep's, 231. 
various-leaved, 231. 
Festuca, 219, 223, 230. 
elatior, 231. 
idahoensis, 232. 
ingrata, 232. 
octoflora, 232. 
ovina, 231. 
capillata, 231. 
duriuscula, 231, 
pratensis, 230. 
rubra, 231. 

heterophylla, 231. 
subuliflora, 132. 
viridula, 232. 
Festucese, 156, 157, 219. 
Field pea, 52. 
Filaree, 26. 
Fiorin, 204. 

Floral organs, morphology of, 112-132. 
Florets, 118. 

sterile, 125. 
Flowers of grasses, 112. 
Fodder, coarse, 49. 
Forage, classification of, 22. 
coarse, production of, 20. 

by states, 85. 
plants, 14. 

relative importance of different kinds 
of, 84. 
Fowl meadow-grass, 229. 
Foxtail, 245. 
green, 76, 184. 
grass, 77. 

meadow, 202, 203. 
millet, 185. 
yellow, 76, 184. 
Fruit, 129-130. 

Gama-grass, 160. 
Gardener's garters, 69, 194. 
Gastridium, 198. 
Genera, 152-153, 156. 

monotypic, 153. 
Generic distribution, 149. 
Geographical distribution, 147-150. 

of grasses, 148. 
Germination, 136, 138. 
Giant reed, 68, 224. 

as soil-binder, 69. 
Glumes, 118, 121, 123. 



Glycine hispida, 53. 
Golden top, 220. 
Goose-grass, 76, 148. 
Grain, 6. 

cut green, production of, 20. 
hay, 46-47. 

miscellaneous uses of, 12. 
Grains, germination of, 138. 
relative importance of, 7. 
Grama, black, 217. 
blue, 217. 

grass, 27, 143, 216-217. 
side oat, 217. 
tall, 39, 217. 
Graphephorum, 222. 
Grass, alfa, 200. 
Bahama, 216. 
barnyard, 183. 
beach, 144, 206. 
bent, 203. 

Bermuda, 30-32, 45, 214-215. 
billion-dollar, 184. 
black, 40. 
blue, 227. 
annual, 230. 
Canada, 229. 
English, 230. 
Kentucky, 228. 
Texas, 230. 
brome, 232. 

awnless, 232, 233. 
Schrader's, 233 
buffalo, 218. 
bur, 187. 
burro, 220. 
canary, 194. 
reed, 194. 
carpet, 180. 
citronella, 170. 
cocksfoot, 216, 227. 
Colorado, 183. 
couch, 78, 238. 
crab, 50, 66, 76-77, 148, 181. 
crested dog's-tail, 220. 
crop areas, 79, 87. 
crop, 181. 
dog's-tooth, 216. 
dog-town, 199. 
esparto, 200. 
family, 154. 

usefulness to man, 1-2. 
fescue, 230. 

meadow, 230. 
foxtail, 245. 
golden top, 220. 
grama, 216-217. 
Guinea, 183. 



INDEX 



271 



Grass, herd's, 204. 
Himalaya fairy, 166. 
holy, 193. 

Hungarian, 184, 185. 
Johnson, 43^4, 78, 170, 171. 
June, 228. 
lemon, 170. 
marram, 144, 206. 
needle, 199. 
oil, 170. 
old witch, 76. 
orchard, 33-34, 45, 226. 
pampas, 167, 224. 
Para, 35, 183. 
plume, 68, 167. 
quack, 78. 
quick, 78. 
quitch, 78. 
Randall, 212. 
Ravenna, 68, 167. 
rescue, 233. 
Rhodes, 216. 
ribbon, 68, 69, 194. 
rye, 236-237. 
St. Augustine, 187. 
St. Lucie, 63. 
salt, 225. 
sleepy, 200. 
snake, 225, 
spear, 199. 

squirrel-tail, 245. 

stink, 225. 

Sudan, 172. 

aweet vernal, 45, 193. 

switch, 39, 40. 

tall oat, 212. 

tickle, 77. 

Uva, 224. 

vanilla, 193. 

velvet, 209. 

vernal, sweet, 45, 193. 

water, 179. 

wheat, 45, 238. 

wire, 32, 39. 

witch, old, 76. 
Grasses, anatomy of, 96. 

distinguishing characters of, 95. 

distribution of, 97. 

economic classification of, 6. 

ornamental, 68, 69. 

pasture, 30. 

range, 26. 

soil-binding, 69-72, 

sugar-producing, 72-73. 

textile, 73-74. 

uses of, 3, 74, 

water, 138. 



Grasses, weedy, 76. 
Grazing in arid region, 83, 
Great Plains, 143. 

crop area, 81. 

forage crops for, 82. 

species composing prairie hay in, 
38-39. 
Green-manuring, 74. 
Guinea-grass, 35, 45, 183, 
Gymnopogon, 214. 
Gymnothrix, 186. 
Gynerium saccharoides, 224. 
sagittatum, 109, 224. 

Halophytes, 140, 146, 
Hay, 54-57. 

acreage of, 17, 

baled, 5. 

double-compressed, 57. 

grain, 46-47. 

in the West, 56. 

making, 54-55, 

prairie, 38. 

product of United States, 38, 

production of, 14, 17, 
by states, 84-85. 

salt marsh, 40. 

stacks, 55. 

standard, 56, 

value of, 17, 

wild, 39. 
Heleochloa, 198. 
Herd's-grass, 33, 202, 204, 
Heteropogon, 166. 

contortus, 148. 
Hierochloa, 193. 
High pine land, 144. 
Hilaria, 173. 

cenchroides, 143, 173-174, 
Hilum, 130. 

Himalaya fairy-grass, 166. 
Holcus, 165, 170, 209. 

halepensis, 170-171. 

Sorghum, 170, 172. 
Homalocenchrus, 190. 
Hordese, 156, 157, 235. 
Hordeum, 78, 235, 236, 244. 

distichum, 246. 

Gussoneanum, 77, 245. 

ischnatherum, 246. 

jubatum, 77, 245. 

murinum, 77, 245, 

nodosum, 245. 

polystiohum, 246, 

pusillum, 77, 245. 

sativimi, 240. 

spontaneum, 240. 



272 



INDEX 



Hordeum, vulgare, 244, 245, 246. 

trifurcatum, 246. 
Hungarian brome, 33. 
grass, 47, 184, 185. 
production of, 18. 
by states, 85. 
Hydrochloa, 190. 

caroliniensis, 146. 
Hydrophytes, 140, 146-147. 
Hystrix, 236. 

Imperata, 165. 

Impervious seed-conveyers, 137. 

Indian reed, 39. 

rice, 7. 
Inflorescence, 112-117. 

axis of, 115, 121. 

motor organs of, 117. 

unisexual, 114. 
Involucre, 123. 
Isachne, 176. 
Ischsemum angustifolium, 74. 

Japanese lawn -grass, 175. 
Job's tears. 111, 162. 
Johnson-grass, 43-44, 170, 171. 

eradication of, 44. 

germination of, 139. 

weed, 78. 
Jouvea pilosa, 115. 

straminea, 115. 
Juncus balticus, 39. 

Gerardii, 40. 
June-grass, 30, 228. 

Kafir, 170, 172. 
Koeleria, 208. 

Korean lawn-grass, 64, 175. 
KowUang, 172. 

Lagurus, 197, 207. 

ovatus, 207. 
Lamarckia aurea, 220. 
Lasiacis, 178. 
Lawn, 61-67. 

care of, 66. 

grass, Japanese, 175. 
Korean, 175. 

mixtures, 64-65. 

preparation of soil, 65. 

seeding, 65. 

turfing, 87. 

watering, 66. 

weeds in, 66, 77, 
Leaf, 103-105, 108. 
Leaves, nervation of, 107, 

roll, 106, 108. 



Legumes, 19, 32. 

annual, for hay or forage, 50. 
for soiling, 58. 
Lemmas, 118, 124-125. 

sterile, 125. 
Leptochloa, 213. 
Lepturus, 235, 236. 
Lespedeza striata, 32, 41. 
Ligule, 105-106. 
Lodicules, 128. 
Lolium, 235, 236. 

italicum, 237. 

multiflorum, 237, 

perenne, 237. 

temulentum, 237. 
Limnodea, 196, 197. 
Luziola, 190. 
Lycurus, 196, 197. 
Lygeum sparteum, 74. 

Maize, 48, 161. 

germination of, 136. 
Manisuris, 165. 
Marram-grass, 144. 

as sand-binder, 71. 
Marshes, grasses of, 146-147. 
Maydeae, 155, 159. 
Meadow fescue, 34, 45, 230, 231. 

foxtail, 45. 

grass, fowl, 45, 229. 
rough-stalked, 45, 229. 

grasses, 45. 

oat-grass, tall, 45, 212. 
Meadows, tame or cultivated, 40. 

permanent, 40^5. 

temporary, 46-53. 

■wild or native, 38. 
Medicago sativa, 41. 

arabica, 32, 41. 
Meibomia tortuosa, 53 
MeHca, 141, 223. 
Melilotus alba, 41. 
Melinidese, 156, 175. 
Mesophytes, 140-141. 
Mesquite, curly, 27, 143, 173. 
Milium, 197. 
Millet, 47, 170, 184, 185. 

barnyard, 47, 49, 183. 

broom-corn, 182. 

foxtail, 47, 185, 195. 
production of, 18. 

German, 47. 

germination of, 139. 

Golden Wonder, 47. 

Hungarian, 47. 

Japanese bnrnyard, 47, 49. 

pearl, 47, GO, 180. 



INDEX 



273 



Millet, pearl, for soiling, 58. 

production of, by states, 85. 

proso, 47, 50, 182. 

Texas, 183. 
Milo, 170, 172. 
Miscanthus, 165, 166. 

nepalensis, 166. 

saccharifer, 166. 

sinensis, 166. 
gracillimus, 166. 
variegatus, 166. 
zebrinus, 166. 
Moisture as related to crop areas, 79. 
Molinia, 221. 
Monanthochloe, 219, 220. 
Monerma, 236. 
Monoecious grasses, 115. 
Morphology of floral organs, 112-132. 

of vegetative organs, 95-111. 
Motor organs, 117. 
Muhlenbergia, 27, 196, 197, 200. 

gracilis, 105, 201. 

straminea, 105. 
Munroa, 221. 

Names, common, 260-261. 

generic, 250. 

derivation of, 251. 
formation of, 250. 

priority of, 257. 

specific, 251. 

formation of, 251, 252. 

subspecific, 253. 

transferring, 253-254. 

valid, 257. 

varietal, 253. 
Nardua, 235. 

National forests, grazing in, 24. 
Na2ia, 173. 

aliena, 175. 
Naziese, 156, 173. 
Needle-grass, 199. 
Nitrogen-fixing organisms, 21, 51. 
Node, 98, 105. 
Nomenclature, 250. 

codes of botanical, 258. 
Nomina conservanda, 258. 
Notholcus, 208, 209. 

lanatus, 209. 

Oat, 209. 

animated, 211. 
cultivated, 209. 
origin of, 211. 
germination of, 138. 
grass, tall, 45, 212. 
naked, 210. 



Oat, wild, 46, 211. 
Old witch-grass, 76. 
Olyra, 176, 177. 
Oplismenus, 176, 179. 
Opuntia, cultivation of, 21. 
Orchard-grass, 33-34, 45, 226. 
Orcuttia, 220. 
Oryza, 190. 

sativa, 190, 191. 
Oryzese, 156, 189. 
Oryzopsis, 196, 197. 
Osterdamia matrella, 175. 
Overgrazed pastures, weeds of, 77. 
Overgrazing, 24-26. 

Pacific slope crop area, 84. 
Palea, 118, 127. 
Pampas-grass, 224. 

hardy, 167. 
Panicaceae, 154-155. 
Paniceae, 156, 176. 
Panicle, 113. 

branching of, 147. 
Panicoidese, 154-155. 
Panicularia, 223. 
Panicum, 176, 179, 181. 

barbinode, 183. 

bulbosum, 102, 141, 183. 

elephantipes, 146. 

Lindheimeri, 106. 

maximum, 183. 

miliaceum, 8, 182, 194-195. 

sphaerocarpon, 106. 

texanum, 183. 

virgatum, 39, 40. 

Pappophorum, 219. 

Para-grass, 35, 183. 

stolons of, 101. 

Parentheses, significance of, in citing 

authors, 254. 
Paspalum,176, 178, 179. 

dilatatum, 179. 

dissectum, 146. 

minus, 179. 

notatum, 179. 

repens, 105, 146. 
Pasture-grasses, 33, 45. 
southern, 35. 

plants, 22. 
annual, 36. 
Pastures, cultivated, 29. 

permanent, 29. 

temporary, 36. 

native, 19. 

woodland, 30. 
Pedicel, 120-121. 
Penicillaria spicata, 186. 



274 



INDEX 



Penicillaria typhoideum, 186. 
Pennisetum, 176, 177, 186. 

americanum, 186. 

glaucum, 186. 

villosum, 186. 

Ruppellii, 186. 
Petiole, 107. 
Phalaridese, 156, 192. 
Phalaris, 192, 194. 

arundinacea, 39, 194. 
picta, 194. 

canariensis, 194. 

caroliniana, 194. 

paradoxa, 120. 
Pharus, 189, 190. 
Phleum, 197, 202. 

alpinum, 202. 

pratense, 202, 
Phragmites, 219, 220. 
Phyllorachis sagittata, 108. 
Phyllostachys, 69. 
Phylogeny of grasses, 157. 
Pine-barrens, 144. 
Pine-grass, 27. 
Pistil, 129. 
Pisum arvense, 52. 
Pleuraphis, 173, 175. 

Jamesii, 175. 

rigida, 175. 
Pleuropogon, 222. 
Plume-grass, 68, 167. 
Plumule, 136. 
Poa, 219, 223, 227-228. 

alpina, 139, 149. 

annua, 230. 

weed in lawn, 66. 

arachnifera, 230. 

bulbosa, 139. 

compressa, 229. 

pratensis, 228, 229. 

serotina, 229. 

triflora, 229. 

trivialis. 229. 
Poaceae, 154. 
Poaeoideae, 154-155. 
Polygonum aviculare, 75. 
Polypogon, 196, 197. 
Prairie, 142-143. 
Priority of names, 257. 
Production of barley, by states, 10. 

cereals, 9. 

corn, by states, 10. 

emmer and spelt, by states, 10. 

hay and forage in United States, 14. 
by states, 84. 

kafir, by states, 11. 

milo, by states, 11. 



Production of oats, by states, 10. 

rice, by states, 11. 

rye, by states, 10. 

spelt and emmer, by states, 10. 

wheat, by states, 10. 
Propagation, by bulblets. 139. 

by stems, 102. 
Prophyllum, 104. 
Proso millet, 7, 182. 
Protective seed-coats, 137. 
Psammophytes, 143. 
Publications on forage crops and 

gras.ses, list of, 88-91. 
Puccinellia, 220. 
Purple-top, 39. 

Quack-grass, 78. 
Quick-grass, 78. 
Quinoa, 7. 
Quitch-grass, 78. 

Raceme, 113, 114. 
Rachilla, 121, 131. 
Rachis, 116, 130, 135. 
Ranch system, 23. 
Randall-grass, 212. 
Range-grasses, 26. 
Ranges, 22-24. 

worn out, rejuvenating of, 25-26. 
Rape, 21, 37. 
Ravenna-grass, 68, 167. 
Redfieldia, 221. 
Red-top, 33, 43, 203, 204. 

for lawns, 61. 
Reed, giant, 68, 224. 

as soil-binder, 69. 
Reimarochloa, 176, 178. 
Rescue-grass, 37, 233. 
Reynaudia, 189. 
Rhizomes, 100, 110. 
Rhode Island bent, 204, 205. 

for lawns, 61-62. 
Rhodes-grass, 216. 
Ribbon-grass, 68, 69, 194. 
Rice, 190-191. 

germination of, 139. 
Roll leaves, 142, 147. 
Root, 98-100. 
Rumex acetosella, 76. 
Rye, 244. 

grass, 34, 37, 236, 237. 
Australian, 237. 
English, 45. 
for lawns, 64. 
Italian, 45. 

wild, 246. 
Rytilix, 165. 



INDEX 



275 



Sacchareae, 166. 
Saccharum. 165, 166. 

officinarum, 166-167. 
Sacciolepis, 178. 
St. Augustine grass, 32, 35, 187-188. 

for lawns, 63. 
St. Lucie grass for lawns, 63. 
Salt bush, 21. 

grass, 225. 

marshes, grasses of, 146. 
Sand-binders, 71, 144. 

bur, 76, 187. 

dunes, 69-72, 143-144. 
fixing, 69-71. 
Savastana, 192. 

odorata, 193. 
Scales, 109. 
Schedonnardus, 214. 
Schizachyrium, 169. 
Schmidtia, 197. 
Scleropogon, 219, 220. 
Scolochloa, 222. 
Scribneria, 235, 236. 
Scrub, 144. 
Secale, 236, 244. 

cereale, 244. 

montanum, 244. 
Seed, 130-131. 

dispersal of, 133-135. 

self-burial of, 137. 
Series, the 2, of grasses, characterized, 

154-155. 
Setaria, 185. 

italica, 185. 
Shallu, 172. 
Sheath, 104-105. 

node, 105. 
Sheaths as floats, 146. 
"Short grass," 27. 
country, 143. 
Silage, 57-59. 
Silos, 58-60. 
Sitanion, 235, 236, 246. 

species, weeds, 78. 
Sleepy-grass, 200. 
Slough-grass, 39. 
Snake-grass, 225. 
Soiling, 57-58. 
Sorghastrum, 165, 173. 

nutans, 39. 
Sorgho, 73, 172. 
Sorghum, 36, 48, 73, 170. 

halepense, 170. 

vulgar e, 171. 
Sorghums, classification of, 172. 
Soya soya, 53. 
Soybean, 53. 



Spartina, 214. 

glabra, 40, 148. 

juncea, 40. 

Michauxiana, 39. 

patens, 144. 
Spear-grass, 199. 
Species, the unit of classification, 151- 

152. 
Spelt, 239, 242. 
Sphenopholis, 208. 
Spike, 113. 
Spikelet, 117-119. 

relation of parts of, 122. 

sterile, 120. 

terminology of parts of, 118-119. 

unisexual, 114, 120. 
Spinifex, 176. 

Spodiopogon sagittifolius, 108. 
Sporobolus, 198. 

airoides, 28. 

cryptandrus, 105. 
Squirrel-tail-grass, 77, 245. 
Stamens, 128. 
Starch, 11-12. 
Stem, 98-100. 

modified, 100. 

propagation by, 102. 
Stenotaphrum, 177, 187. 

secundatum, 188. 
Stink-grass, 225. 
Stipa, 135, 196, 197, 199. 

elegantissima, 134. 

inebrians, 200. 

pennata, 134, 200. 

sibirica, 200. 

spartea, 200. 

speciosa, 200. 

tenacissima, 74. 

vaseyi, 200. 
Stizolobium Deeringianum, 52. 
Stolons, 101. 
Strep tochseta, 124, 189. 
Sudan-grass, 172. 
Sugar-cane, 72-73, 166. 
Swamp, grasses of, 147. 
Sweet vernal-grass, 45, 193. 
Switch-grass, 39, 40. 
Synonyms, 257. 
Syntherisma, 178, 180. 

glabrum, 181. 

ischsemum, 181. 

linearis, 181. 

sanguinalis, 148, 181. 

Tares, 237. 
Taxonomy, 151-158. 
Teff, 225. 



276 



INDEX 



Temperature as related to crop areas, 

79. 
Teosinte, 58, 160. 
Texas millet, 50, 183. 
Thysolsena agrostis, 69. 
Tickle-grass, 77. 
Timothy, 42, 202. 

and clover mixed, production of, 15. 
by states, 84. 

crop area, 80. 

production of, 15. 
by states, 84. 

standard hay of the East, 56. 
Trachypogon, 165. 
Tribes of grasses, 154-156. 
Trichloris, 214. 
Tricholaena, 76, 179, 184. 

rosea, 184. 
Tridens, 221. 

flavus, 39. 
Trifolium, 41. 

incarnatum, 41-42, 52. 

hybridum, 41. 

pratense, 41. 

repens, 41-42. 
Triplasis, 221. 
Tripogon, 213. 
Tripsacum, 159. 

dactyloides, 160. 
Trisetum, 209. 
Tristegineae, 175. 
Triticum, 235, 236, 238. 

gegilopoides, 240. 

sestivum, 241, 242. 

compactum, 240. 

dicoccoides, 240. 

dicoccum, 239, 240, 241, 242. 

durum, 240, 242. 

monococcum, 240, 241, 242. 

ovatum, 240. 

polonicum, 240, 241, 242. 

sativum, 238, 241, 242, 243. 
compactum, 243. 
dicoccum, 243. 
durum, 243. 
spelta, 243. 
tenax, 243. 
turgidum, 243. 
vulgare, 243. 

3pelta, 239, 240, 242, 



Triticum, turgidum, 240, 242. 
vulgare, 238, 240, 241, 242. 

Uniola, 221. 
Uva-grass, 224. 

Valota, 177. 

Vegetative organs, morphology of, 95- 

111. 
Velvet bean, 52, 

grass, 35, 45, 209. 
Vetch, 52. 
Vicia sativa, 52. 

villosa, 52. 
Vigna sinensis, 51. 

Water-grass, 179. 

grasses, 138. 
Weeds, 75-78. 

annual, 76. 

brome-grasses, 77. 

biennial, 76. 

grasses as, 76. 

perennial, 76. 

eradication of, 78. 
Wheat, 238. 

classification of, 242. 

durum, 242. 

grass, 238. 
slender, 45. 

origin of, 240. 

Polish, 241, 242. 
Wild grasses, production of, 19. 
Winter fat, 21. 
Wire-grass, 32, 39. 

Xerophytes, 140-145. 

Zea, 159. 

mays, 161. 
Zizania, 190, 191. 

aquatica, 191. 

latifolia, 191. 

palustris, 7, 146, 191. 

injury to seeds of, by drying, 
138. 
Zizaniopsis, 190. 

miliacea, 146. 
Zoysia pungens, 175. 
Zoysiese, 173, 



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